CAPE Bio (P1) - Aspects of Biochemistry

zooxanthellae

plant-like organisms which symbiotically provide oxygen to coral reefs by using the carbon dioxide they produce to photosynthesize

Briefly describe the chemical structure of water

Water is composed of hydrogen and oxygen in which oxygen forms two covalent bonds with two hydrogen atoms

dipole

a pair of regions of opposing charge

State the properties of water that boost its functionality

Its hydrogen bonds
Its density
Specific heat capacity
Polar nature

hydrogen bond

a weak force of attraction formed when hydrogen is bonded to an electronegative atom in a molecule, creating temporary dipoles

bleaching

the instance in which zooxanthellae die and the translucent coral tissue is exposed highlighting the white calcium carbonate skeleton of coral

acid

a substance that increase the concentration of hydrogen ions in solution by donating their own

base

a substance that decreases the concentration of hydrogen ions in solution by accepting hydrogen ions

pH scale

logarithmic scale that is used to map the concentration of hydrogen ions in a solution

monomer

a small chemical unit that is used as a building block for larger molecuies

macromolecule

a molecule that is composed of a large, complex structure of smaller molecules bonded together

polymer

a type of macromolecule composed of repeating units of monomers bonded together covalently

condensation

the instance in which two molecules combine together and subsequently lose a molecule of water

hydrolysis

the instance in which a molecule is split into two parts by the addition of a water molecule

Briefly describe carbohydrate and its structure

hydrophilic organic molecules containing carbon, hydrogen and oxygen atoms composed of micromolecules called sugars and generally possess a 2:1 ratio of hydrogen and oxygen atoms which are primarily used to readily store energy which is released when they are broken down for organismic function

Briefly describe monosaccharides and provide examples

micromolecules that consist of a singular sugar molecule. Examples include glucose and fructose

Briefly describe disaccharides and provide examples

macromolecules that consist of two sugar molecules. Examples include sucrose and lactose

Briefly describe polysacchairdes and provide examples

larger macromolecules composed of a chain of monosaccharides covalently bonded together. Example include starch, glycogen and cellulose

Briefly describe reducing sugars and provide examples

those that in solution have an aldehyde or a ketone group and act as a reducing agent. Examples include glucose and fructose

Briefly describe non-reducing sugars and provide an example

those that in solution lack an aldehyde or a ketone group. A common example is sucrose

State the substance used to identify reducing and non-reducing sugars

Benedict’s solution

glucose

most common monosaccharide, gets broken down and provides energy for all the processes that occur inside cells and is involved in the composition of complex sugars and other organic molecules, including amino acids and fats

State the two forms that glucose molecules can exist as

Glucose molecules can exist as a straight chain or ring

Briefly describe beta glucose and its structure

a ring-shaped form of glucose that is used to form energy storage molecules in which the hydroxyl group bonded to the C1 is below the ring

Briefly describe beta glucose and its structure

a ring-shaped form of glucose that is used to form structural molecules in which the hydroxyl group bonded to C1 is above the ring

glycosidic bond

that formed when monosaccharides covalently bond together in a condensation reaction to form complex sugars

Briefly describe starch and its structure

an alpha glucose polymer that is primarily used to store energy in plants by clustering into grains and accumulating in the storage cells of food tubers

Briefly describe amylose and its structure

a linear, unbranched form of starch composed of a chain of at least a thousand alpha glucose monomers that wind in a uniform helical coil and possess a-1,4 linkages

Briefly describe amylopectin and its structure

form that starch can take composed of a thousand or more alpha glucose monomers in which short chains of ~10 alpha glucose monomers branch off the main chain at intervals of ~30 alpha glucose monomers that has both a-1,4 and a-1,6 linkages

State the substances used to test for starch

A solution of iodine and potassium iodide

Briefly describe glycogen and its structure

an alpha glucose polymer that is primarily used to store energy in prokaryotes, fungi and animals, consisting of highly branched chains of alpha glucose monomers that has a-1,4 glycosidic linkages between the glucose monomers on the main chain with branches every ~10 glucose monomers with a-1, 6 linkages

Briefly describe cellulose and its structure

a beta glucose polymer with 1,4 linkages between the individual glucose units which is used to make the cell walls of plants

osmotic pressure

pressure that arises across a selectively permeable membrane separating solutions of different concentration as a result of the passage of solvent

protein

organic macromolecules made up of polypeptide chains that are used to construct and/or maintain cell issue, hormones enzymes and antibodies

polypeptide

an organic molecules that consists of a chain of amino acids linked together by peptide bonds

Briefly describe an amino acid and its structure

organic molecules containing an amino and carboxylic acid functional groups bonded to a central carbon atom which is also bonded to a hydrogen atom and another group specific to the amino acid known as the R group, which combine to form polypeptides and serve as the most basic building blocks of proteins

Briefly describe the primary structure of proteins

structure in which proteins have a repeating linear (N-C-C) sequence of amino acids in a chain

Briefly describe the secondary structure of proteins

structure that arises when a polypeptide is assembled in a cell and interactions among its amino acids cause it to fold into a pattern

Briefly describe the structure of the alpha helix

structure that arises when the double-bonded oxygen atom in one amino acid and the hydrogen atom of the amino group in another amino acid four amino acids down the chain form a hydrogen bond between them, creating a helical coil

Briefly describe the structure of beta pleated sheet

structure that arises when segments of a polypeptide chains are lined up parallel and are linked to one another by hydrogen bonds form between the C=) and n_H of one polypeptide segment and the C=O and the N-H of adjacent segments to form a zigzag shape

fibrous proteins

insoluble proteins with a repeating structure that possess an alpha helix or beta pleated sheet

Briefly describe collagen and its structure

a fibrous extracellular protein which makes connecting tissues such as skin, tendons and ligaments tough in which each molecule has three identical polypeptides that form left-hand helices that wind around each other to form a triple helix with each polypeptide having approximately 1000 amino acids with glycine as every third amino acid

globular protein

soluble proteins formed when a polypeptide chain, containing secondary structure folds further to form a three-dimensional, compact, spherical shape as a result of weak, non-covalent interactions between the R groups of the amino acids on the chain

tertiary protein

structure that arises after a secondary structure folds to form a three dimensional shape

quaternary protein

structure in which multiple polypeptide chains of different subunits are organized into a protein as a result of weak, non-covalent interactions with their R groups

haemoglobin

globular protein found in blood that carries oxygen in red blood cells that consists of four folded polypeptide chains that assemble to form its quaternary structure held together by an array of bonds that contains two alpha subunits and two beta subunits

State the test used for proteins

biuret test

Briefly describe lipids and their structure

hydrophobic organic molecules containing carbon, hydrogen and oxygen atoms consisting of fatty acids and glycerol which are primarily used to store energy long-term which is released when they are broken down for organismic function which also provide insulation for organs

fatty acid

long hydrocarbon chain tailed by a carboxyl group that are used as building blocks for lipids

saturated fatty acids

those with no double bonds

unsaturated fatty acids

those with either a double or triple bond

glycerol

a naturally occurring sugar alcohol consisting of hydrocarbons bonded to hydroxyl groups that is used as a building block for lipids

triglycerides

lipid molecules containing three fatty acid molecules covalently bonded to one glycerol molecule

lipase

the enzyme that breaks down lipids into fatty acids and glycerol

phospholipids

lipid molecules with two fatty acid molecules covalently bonded to one glycerol molecule with a soluble phosphate group attached to one of the hydroxyl groups in the glycerol

State the tests that can be used to identify lipids

emulsion test and brown paper test