Unit 4: States of Consciousness and UNIT: 5 Learning

Acquisition

The first step in the conditioning process, in either classical or operant conditioning, that occurs when an organism learns that a behavior is associated with a consequence.

Aversive Conditioning

A type of behavior therapy that involves pairing a negative stimulus with an undesired behavior.

Avoidance Conditioning

A type of learning in which an organism learns that an action will prevent an aversive stimulus from appearing.

Backward Conditioning

The classical conditioning procedure that involves presenting the UCS before the NS. This is generally less effective than traditional conditioning.

Bobo Doll Experiment

The study conducted by Albert Bandura which demonstrated how observational learning of aggression can occur by watching others model such behavior.

Chaining

The operant conditioning process of reinforcing each separate response in a sequence in a step-by-step manner that leads to the learning of a complex behavior.

Classical Conditioning

A learning technique created by Ivan Pavlov in which the repeated partnering of a neutral stimulus (NS) with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) is used to create a conditioned response (CR).

Cognitive Map

A mental representation formed about one's position in space and the relationship that exists with other locations or objects in the surrounding area.

Conditioned Response

In classical conditioning, the learned involuntary reaction to a stimulus which in Ivan Pavlov's original study was the salivation to the metronome.

Conditioned Stimulus

In classical conditioning, a previously neutral factor that comes to elicit an involuntary response after being paired with the unconditioned stimulus. In Ivan Pavlov's original study, it was the metronome (bell) after it was paired with the meat powder.

Continuous Reinforcement Schedule

In operant conditioning, the process of rewarding the person or animal for every correct response that leads to both rapid acquisition and rapid extinction.

Counterconditioning

A type of behavior therapy based on classical conditioning that replaces unacceptable responses with acceptable ones. This therapy is often used to treat phobias by creating a learned association between the feared object and something pleasant.

Escape Conditioning

A type of learning based on negative reinforcement in which an organism learns that an action will result in the removal of an aversive stimulus.

Extinction

The eradication or weakening of a behavior that has been acquired through either classical or operant conditioning. It is the result of a failure to be paired with the UCS or the ending of reinforcement.

Fixed-Interval Schedule

A partial reinforcement schedule that involves giving a reinforcement for the first correct action after a predetermined amount of time has occurred.

Fixed-Ratio Schedule

A partial reinforcement schedule that involves giving a reinforcement for the first correct action that occurs after a predetermined number of correct behaviors has occurred.

Habituation

A form of learning in which there is a decrease in responsiveness to stimuli that have been presented repeatedly.

Higher Order Conditioning (Secondary)

A variation of classical conditioning in which the conditioned stimulus serves as the unconditioned stimulus to train the organism to involuntarily respond to an additional conditioned stimulus.

Instinctive Drift

The tendency, often seen in animals, to gradually revert to innate behaviors, (Dogs will return to digging behaviors) despite the fact that reinforcement is given for another behavior.

Intermittent (Partial) Reinforcement Schedule

In operant conditioning, the process of rewarding the person or animal occasionally for demonstrating the desired behavior in order to create behaviors that are more resistant to extinction.

Latent Learning

A type of learning that is gained without awareness or a reinforcement that remains hidden until a specific need presents itself.

Law of Effect

Term coined by Edward Thorndike stating that behaviors that result in reinforcement will increase and behaviors that result in punishment will decrease.

Mirror Neuron

A type of brain cell activated by vicarious (observational) learning that fires when an individual is watching others engaged in a behavior.

Modeling

The process sometimes used in psychotherapy that involves learning new behaviors by watching and imitating other individuals. The term is often associated with Albert Bandura and his famous "Bobo doll" study.

Negative Punishment

An operant conditioning consequence that involves taking away a wanted stimulus after the behavior is performed to decrease the chance that the behavior will reoccur.

Negative Reinforcement

An operant conditioning consequence that involves taking away an aversive stimulus after the behavior is performed to increase the chance that the desired behavior will reoccur.

Neutral Stimulus

In classical conditioning, a factor that does not illicit a response from the organism being tested. In Ivan Pavlov's original study, this was the metronome (bell) before it was paired with the meat.

Operant Conditioning

A method of learning related to voluntary responses in which behaviors that are reinforced increase and behaviors that are punished decrease.

Overjustification Effect

A phenomenon when a person is given an extrinsic reward for a behavior that was once intrinsically motivating. Because of the reward, the intrinsic motivation is lost and the behavior continues only in an effort to gain the reward.

Positive Punishment

An operant conditioning consequence that involves adding an aversive stimulus after the behavior is performed to decrease the chance that the behavior will reoccur.

Positive Reinforcement

An operant conditioning consequence that involves adding a desired stimulus after the behavior is performed to increase the chance that the behavior will reoccur.

Primary Reinforcer

A reinforcer, such as food or water, that is related to satisfying a basic physiological need.

Punishment

A consequence in operant conditioning that leads to a decrease in a given response because it has been followed either by the removal of a pleasant stimulus or the addition of an unpleasant stimulus.

Puzzle Box

Mechanism created by Edward Thorndike to test the ability of cats to escape based on the reward of escaping from the confined area.

Reinforcement

A consequence in operant conditioning that leads to an increase in a given response because it has been followed either by the removal of an aversive stimulus or the addition of a pleasant stimulus.

Secondary Reinforcer

A reinforcer, such as belonging or praise, that is not necessary for the maintenance of life.

Shaping

A type of operant conditioning that reinforces successively closer approximations of a desired voluntary response.

Skinner Box (Operant Chamber)

An apparatus for studying operant conditioning that gives an animal (e.g. rat, pigeon) the opportunity to execute a response (e.g. lever pushing) and controls the reinforcements or punishments that serve as consequences. A record of the animal's responses is created automatically by a cumulative recorder.

Social Learning Theory

Theory suggesting people learn by watching others and imitating their behavior.

Spontaneous Recovery

In classical conditioning, the phenomenon involving the sudden reappearance of a conditioned response that occurs after an extinction period without relearning.

Stimulus Discrimination

The ability to determine the difference between stimuli that will lead to reinforcement or punishment and those that will not.

Stimulus Generalization

The inability to determine the difference between stimuli that will lead to reinforcement or punishment and those that will not.

Taste Aversion

The biological tendency to avoid certain foods after experiencing an adverse reaction, often associated with classical conditioning.

Token Economy

A behavioral technique in which an individual (usually in an institutional setting) is rewarded for demonstrating a desirable behavior with a token. The goal is to motivate the person to accumulate tokens for repeating the desired behavior which can be exchanged for either primary or secondary benefits.

Unconditioned Response

In classical conditioning, an unlearned, involuntary reaction to a stimulus. In Ivan Pavlov's original study, it was the salivation to the meat powder.

Unconditioned Stimulus

In classical conditioning, a factor that naturally elicits an involuntary response. In Ivan Pavlov's original study, it was the meat powder.

Variable-Interval Schedule

A partial reinforcement schedule that involves giving a reinforcement for the first correct action that occurs after an unpredictable amount of time has occurred.

Variable-Ratio Schedule

A partial reinforcement schedule that involves giving a reinforcement for the first correct action that occurs after an unpredictable amount of correct behaviors have occurred.

Vicarious Conditioning

Also known as observational learning, this type of learning lacks any direct reinforcement or punishment but relies on learning from watching and imitating behavior seen in others.

Activation-Synthesis Model

This model ststes that dreams can be explained as the result of random neural firing which is then interpreted by the brain to add meaning.

Cannabis

A type of drug characterized as a mild hallucinogen that produces a relaxed yet euphoric state due to the active ingredient of THC (e.g. marijuana and hashish). Long-term use may lead to impaired memory and respiratory problems.

Circadian Rhythm

A 24-25 hour cycle related to sleep and wake patterns. These cycles are in part controlled by levels of melatonin in one's body.

Depressant

A category of psychoactive drugs that inhibit activity in the central nervous system.

Hallucinogen

A type of drug that creates false sensory perceptions and altered consciousness in the user.

Heroin

A type of opioid drug that is highly addictive and is a stronger form of morphine. It is used recreationally for its euphoric effects. Medically, it may be used for pain relief.

Insomnia

A sleep-wake disorder in which an individual experiences either the inability to fall asleep or stay asleep and as a result experiences tiredness during waking hours.

Latent Content

The term Freud used to refer to the hidden and symbolic meaning of a dream.

Manifest Content

The term Freud used to refer to the the plot or storyline of a dream.

Methamphetamine

A central nervous stimulant often used as a recreational drug but may also be used to treat ADD or obesity. The drug impacts dopamine pathways in the brain which increases levels of pleasure and the user often seeks out the same feeling which can lead to addiction.

Non-Rapid Eye Movement (NREM)

All of the stages of sleep with the exception of REM or dream sleep. These include Stages 1, 2, and 3.

Narcolepsy

A sleep-wake disorder characterized by daytime sleepiness and brief lapses into sleep while engaged in other activities.

Psychological Dependence

Involves an emotional need rather than a biological need for the drug which makes the discontinuation of use difficult.

REM Sleep

The stage of light sleep in which most dreams occur. Voluntary muscle activity is suppressed and brain waves that are beta-like in appearance in this stage of sleep.

Opioids

A category of psychoactive drugs that are similar to morphine and may be effective in reducing pain and anxiety but can also be highly addictive when used recreationally. They are often used in this capacity because of the elation caused when using these drugs.

sleep terrors (night terrors)

A type of sleep-wake disorder that occurs during deep NREM 3 sleep in which an individual (typically a child) experiences and episode of intense fear and panic without recall of the episode the next morning.

Somnambulism

A type of sleep-wake disorder characterized by walking or performing other actions during deep NREM 3.

Psychoactive Drugs

Types of chemical substances which alter a person's thoughts, emotions or experiences when ingested.

Stimulant

A type of drug that heightens activity in the central nervous system leading to increased alertness and activity. Examples include caffeine or cocaine.

Tolerance

Involves the decreased responsiveness to a drug after extended use.

Sleep Apnea

A type of sleep-wake disorder characterized by loud snoring and interruptions to breathing during sleep which causes extreme daytime tiredness.

K-complex

A sudden increase and then sharp decrease in brain wave amplitude that occurs in NREM 2.

Melatonin

A type of hormone produced by the pineal gland that impacts sleep-wake cycles. High levels of this hormone promote sleep.

Hypnic jerk

Involves the sudden, involuntary movement that occurs in some individuals during Stage 1 of sleep.

Lucid dream

A type of dream in which the dreamer is aware of what they are dreaming and can potentially control what is happening in the dream.

Sleep spindle

A short, rapid burst of brain activity during stage 2 of sleep.

Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN)

Located in the hypothalamus and is responsible for regulating the sleep-wake cycle by sending signals to the pineal gland which releases melatonin.