10.Cold War rivalries, 1955-63

Contradictory policies

After the death of Stalin the USSR's foreign policy was contradictory: there was summit diplomacy and peaceful coexistence alongside support for revolutionary regimes, the launch of Sputnik and stockpiling weapons.
The USA were no less contradictory: Eisenhower publicly denounced the 'military industrial complex' meanwhile supporting the development of new weapons.
Kennedy continued such policies, and it was only after the Cuban missile crisis that both sides began to rethink their nuclear policies.

The start of the arms race

When the USSR tested it's nuclear technology, therefore acquired nuclear weapons capability, a nuclear arms race and begun.
In March 1954, the USA successfully tested a lithium H-bomb (1500 times more powerful than the bomb used at Hiroshima in 1945).
(The Strategic Air Command (1948) was the USA's defence system against nuclear threat, and became an all-jet force focused on any strategic bombers).
By September the USSR had similar technology, and by 1955 they tested an airborne H bomb, 100 times more powerful than their first attempts.

The continuation of the arms race

In November 1957 Eisenhower commissioned a report (the Gaither report) to investigate the state of US-Soviet nuclear capability.
The USSR were first seen to be catching up with the US - in 1957 summer they successfully tested the first Intercontinental Ballistic Missile (ICBM) and in October their first satellite was put into orbit. It was soon realised that the USSR were winning the arms race.
The Gaither Report presented the 'missile gap', revealing a 100 to 30 lead in ICBMs in favour of the USSR. The USA were seen to be in grave danger.

A turn of events

Eisenhower placed his trust in data received from his U2 spy plane instead of the Gaither report.
This suggested that there was a slow rate of production of nuclear warheads by the USSR, and the Gaither report was therefore believed to have inadequate evidence.
Therefore, the USSR's deployment of ICBMs was only 10 by 1959.
The USA began to develop a new range of ICBMs (Atlas and Titan models).
In 1957 Eisenhower negotiated an agreement with Britain that allowed the US to station their IRBMs, and soon after the same agreement was reached with NATO.

The continuation of the arms race

The year 1959 witnessed the development of the next generation of nuclear missile systems, including the Submarine-Launched Ballistic Missile (SLBM) Polaris, the Thor and the Minuteman (ICBM) systems.
Meanwhile, the USSR was developing it's own revised systems the SS-6 system was considered too large and lacking mobility. So it was replaced with the more mobile SS-7.

The space race

On October 4th 1957, the USSR claimed it's first victory in the space race by launching the first satellite to orbit earth (Sputnik).
In November, a dog named Laika was launched into a 10-day orbit in Sputnik II.
These developments alarmed the US, as it appeared that the Soviet's space technology had surpassed theirs.
The USA realised that the USSR had the technology to launch nuclear missiles, something that was likely to rapidly become reality.

USA space technology

Eisenhower's administration came under pressure from Democrats who argued that he's let the USSR take the lead in space technology in order to cut costs.
The USSR's lead undermined the massive retaliation strategy that was fundamental to USA's Cold War nuclear defence programme.
In September 1958, the US government authorised $1 billion for technological developments in this field.
However, on the 6th of December 1957 the US Navy's Vanguard rocket crashed on take-off ('Flopnik').

The continuation of the space race

The USSR space programme, in contrast, went strength to strength, in October 1959 the first satellite to orbit the moon was launched and on 12th April 1961 the first manned satellite to orbit the earth was launched.
But the Soviet lead was soon reversed as the USA managed to rapidly catch up: by 1962 they'd successfully launched 63 space missions (USSR: 15).
From August 1960 the US Discoverer satellite programmed provided long-range intelligence gathering photos (rendering U2 flights semi-obsolete).

Khrushchev becoming USSR prime minister

When, in 1953, Khrushchev came to power in the USSR there were many factors to influence his next decisions:

\-USSR space technology dominated the USA's

\-West Germany was now a member of NATO and it therefore could become equipped with nuclear weapons.

\-USSR had a fragile hold on Eastern Europe. Defence spending was draining resources from this region.

\-There were no restrictions on German Democratic Republic (GDR) citizens fleeing to a more prosperous Capitalist West.

\-The West had not yet recognised the existence of the GDR.

The Berlin Crisis

Therefore his priorities were to strengthen the economy and defences of the USSR, and have global ideological expansion. Berlin became the focal point to fulfil this.
Due to heavy financial investments in West Berlin, it had become a flagship of Western capitalism, and those in East Berlin could easily compare it to their communist economy.
Khrushchev wanted to minimise US influence in Germany and be assured that they'd not arm West Germany with nuclear weapons.
He believed that a propaganda victory in Berlin might strengthen the Soviet position.
He also feared that China may try to assume the position of the dominant communist power due to the weakening of Sino-Soviet relations by 1958.
Therefore it was in his best interest to succeed in Berlin.

The USSR's ultimatum

On the 27th November 1958, the USSR issued a 6 month ultimatum to the West demanding the withdrawal of Western troops from West Berlin and for Berlin to be declared a 'free city'. Otherwise the USSR would sign a separate treaty with the GDR which would threaten the Western powers' access to/occupation of West Berlin, and Soviet rights to Berlin would be transferred to the GDR forcing the Western powers to recognise the GDR.

The outcome

On the 31st December the West rejected the ultimatum. However there was a desire to lessen confrontation with the USSR, alarming the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG).
West Germany's chancellor (Adeneur) feared an American betrayal.
Any progress over the status of Berlin, the future of Germany, nuclear-free Central Europe, and the diplomatic recognition of the GDR was halted when the U2 spy plane was Brough down in the USSR (1st May 1960).

The Berlin Wall

Although Khrushchev had not wanted to close the East Berlin border, he changed his mind:
In 1953 more than 300k GDR citizens had migrated to the West, in 1956 there has been 150k more, and during the first half of 1961, around 10k fled.
Many of these emigrates were skilled workers that East Berlin needed to contribute to its economic growth.
Walter Ulbricht (East German chancellor) persuaded Khrushchev to take action.
On 13th August 1961 work began to block off West Berlin.

Impact of the Berlin Wall

-The GDR's economic crisis was solved; the professionals and skilled workers couldn't leave so had to contribute.
-The inaction of the West and it's tolerance of the Wall suggested that they'd reached a degree of recognition of the GDR.
-It can also be argued that the wall guaranteed there'd be no military conflict between USA and USSR - for Kennedy the wall wasn't good but a better alternative to war.
-Berlin was the acid test of the West's commitment to defend freedom by controlling expansionist communism, Khrushchev had handed the USA the finest propaganda tool it could've wished for.