AP Govt Midterm

Other Sources: AP KNOWT Pratice, Gizmo, YouTube: Carey LaManna, Mr. Raymond's Social Studies Academy, Heimler's History

Thomas Hobbes

English philosopher who wrote Leviathan; believed humans are naturally selfish and need a strong central authority (absolute monarchy) to maintain order and prevent chaos.

John Locke

English philosopher who argued that people are born with natural rights to life, liberty, and property; believed government’s job is to protect these rights, and citizens can overthrow it if it fails (Two Treatises of Government).

Jean Jacques Rousseau

Enlightenment thinker who believed people are naturally good but corrupted by society; advocated for a social contractwhere government derives power from the consent of the governed and serves the general will of the people.

Participatory Government

A model of democracy where citizens have direct influence in decision-making and policy (e.g., voting, protests, town halls); emphasizes broad participation and active civic engagement.

Pluralist Government

A theory of democracy where power is distributed among many groups and interests; policy results from competition and compromise between these diverse groups rather than a single elite controlling government.

Elite Government

A theory of democracy that argues a small, wealthy, and powerful group (the elite) holds the most influence over government decisions, while the majority of citizens have limited power.

Iron Triangle Democracy

The stable, mutually beneficial relationship between Congress, bureaucratic agencies, and interest groups; each helps the others achieve their goals, often leading to policy outcomes that favor their interests over the public’s.

Delaware

Who was the first state to ratfiy the Constitution?

Federalists

Supporters of the U.S. Constitution who favored a strong central government to maintain order and unity; key figures included Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay (authors of The Federalist Papers).

Anti-Federalists

Opponents of the U.S. Constitution who feared a strong central government would threaten individual rights and state power; their pushback led to the addition of the Bill of Rights.

• Will this protect our natural rights?

• Congress would tax too heavily

• POTUS would use the militray agaisnt the people

• National Courts would overide state laws

What were the main concerns Anti-Federalsits had obout the Constitution?

protected by State Bill of Rights, protections in Constitution → rights of habeas corpus, no bills of attainment, no ex post facto laws, Constitution creates a limited govt

What was Madison’s counteragrument to the Anti-Federalist concerns about the Constitution?

Congressional Amendment Process

Proposed by 2/3 of both houses of Congress and ratified by 3/4 of state legislatures.

Convention Amendment Process

Proposed by a national convention called by 2/3 of state legislatures and ratified by 3/4 of the states.

Small - less freedom, harder to control, factions, Anti-fed #1

Large - more opinions = more freedom, can control the factions → not one group can gain supremacy, fed #10

What is the difference between a small republic vs a large republic?

Federalist Paper No. 10

Written by James Madison, it argues that a large republic helps control the dangers of factions by diluting their power across a broad and diverse population, preventing any one group from dominating government.

Anti-Federalists Paper No. 1

Written under the pseudonym “Brutus,” it warned that the proposed Constitution gave too much power to the federal government, threatening state authority and individual liberty; argued that a large republic would be too distant to represent the people effectively.

Federalist Paper No. 51

Written by James Madison, it explains how checks and balances and separation of powers prevent any one branch of government from becoming too powerful; emphasizes that “ambition must be made to counteract ambition.”

National Executive

The branch of government responsible for enforcing laws and carrying out national policies; led by the President, who serves as chief executive, commander in chief, and head of state under the U.S. Constitution.

enumerated government power

Specific powers granted to Congress by the U.S. Constitution (Article I, Section 8), such as the power to tax, regulate commerce, coin money, declare war, and maintain armed forces; these define the scope of federal authority.

concurrent government power

Powers shared by both federal and state governments, such as the ability to tax, build roads, enforce laws, and establish courts; these allow different levels of government to operate simultaneously within the same territory.

Reserved government power

Powers kept by the states under the 10th Amendment; include authority over education, elections, local governments, public safety, and other areas not specifically given to the federal government.

Hamilton’s Federalism

favored a strong national government with broad powers to promote economic growth, maintain order, and unify the states; he supported a loose interpretation of the Constitution and the creation of a national bank to strengthen federal authority.

Jefferson’s Federalism

Thomas Jefferson advocated for limited federal government and stronger state and local powers; he supported a strict interpretation of the Constitution and believed in an agrarian-based economy with more power given to the people.

The Constitution avoided directly abolishing slavery but included compromises to appease both northern and southern states:

• Three-Fifths Compromise: Slaves counted as 3/5 of a person for representation and taxation.

• Slave Trade Clause: Congress could not ban the importation of slaves until 1808.

• Fugitive Slave Clause: Escaped slaves had to be returned to their owners, even if they fled to free states.

What were the issues of slavery in the Constitution?

Federalism

A system of government where power is divided between a national (federal) government and state governments; allows both levels to make laws, collect taxes, and govern citizens while maintaining their own authority.

Layerd cake federalism

dual federalism; a system where federal and state governments operate independently in their own areas of authority, like separate layers of a cake, with minimal overlap.

marble cake federalism

cooperative federalism; a system where federal and state governments work together and share responsibilities in policy areas, creating intertwined powers like the swirls of a marble cake.

McCulloch v. Maryland

Supreme Court case that strengthened federal power by ruling that Congress can create a national bank under the Necessary and Proper Clause and that states cannot tax federal institutions, establishing federal supremacy over states.

Gibbons v. Ogden

Supreme Court case that expanded federal power by ruling that Congress has the exclusive power to regulate interstate commerce under the Commerce Clause, limiting states’ ability to control trade between states.

Heart of Atlanta Motel v U.S.

Supreme Court case that upheld the Civil Rights Act of 1964, ruling that Congress could prohibit racial discrimination in public accommodations using its power to regulate interstate commerce.

Lopez v. U.S.

Supreme Court case that limited Congress’s power under the Commerce Clause by ruling that the Gun-Free School Zones Act exceeded federal authority, reaffirming that some powers belong exclusively to the states.

Crime Bill

Officially the Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act, it increased funding for police, expanded prisons, and introduced tougher sentencing laws, including the three-strikes rule; aimed to reduce crime but later criticized for contributing to mass incarceration.

Morrison v U.S.

Supreme Court case that struck down parts of the Violence Against Women Act, ruling that Congress exceeded its power under the Commerce Clause; emphasized that gender-motivated crimes are not economic activity and are primarily under state jurisdiction.

Categorical Grant

Federal funding given to states or local governments for a specific purpose with strict rules and requirements, such as building highways or funding school lunch programs.

Block Grant

Federal funding given to states or local governments for a broad purpose with few restrictions, allowing more flexibility in how the money is spent (e.g., education, healthcare, or community development).

Project Grant

Federal funding awarded to states, local governments, or organizations for specific projects based on applications and competitive review, often used for research, education, or public services.

Morill Act

Federal law that provided land to states to fund colleges focused on agriculture and mechanical arts, helping expand higher education across the United States.

1. Its there

2. Its a lot

3. It doesnt run out

4. Its good politics

Why do states take the money from these grants even if they have so many limitations?

Mandate

A requirement from the federal government that states or local governments must follow, often tied to funding; can be funded (federal money provided) or unfunded (states must pay themselves).

Clean Water/Air Act

Regulates pollutants in U.S. waterways, sets water quality standards, and funds wastewater treatment, Regulates air pollutants, sets air quality standards, and limits emissions from industry and vehicles.

Brady Bill

Federal law that mandates background checks and imposes a waiting period for purchasing handguns, aimed at reducing gun violence; named after James Brady, who was wounded during a presidential assassination attempt.

Public Opinion

The collective attitudes, beliefs, and views of the general population on political issues, policies, or leaders, often measured through polls, surveys, or elections.

Literary Digest

A magazine famous for its 1936 presidential poll, which incorrectly predicted Alf Landon would beat Franklin D. Roosevelt due to biased sampling and overrepresentation of wealthier respondents; highlights the importance of accurate polling methods.

George Gallup

American pollster who founded the Gallup Poll; developed scientific sampling methods to accurately measure public opinion, revolutionizing political and social surveys.

• ?’s must be clearly worded and understandable

• ?’s must be non-leading

• ± margin of error (3%)

• large, random sample - stratified polling

What are the four features of a good poll?

tracking poll

A survey conducted repeatedly over time to measure changes in public opinion, often used during elections to track a candidate’s support.

opinion saliency

The degree to which an issue matters to the public or influences their political opinions and behavior; highly salient issues are more likely to affect voting and activism.

opinion stability

The extent to which public opinion on an issue remains consistent over time; stable opinions are resistant to change, while unstable opinions fluctuate with events or new information.

opinion-policy congruence

The degree to which government policies align with public opinion; high congruence means laws and decisions reflect what most citizens want, low congruence indicates a gap between the public and policymakers.

Exit Poll

A survey conducted as voters leave the polling place to predict election outcomes and analyze voter demographics and behavior.

political socialization

The process by which individuals develop their political beliefs, values, and behaviors, often influenced by family, schools, peers, media, and life experiences.

• Family

• Geography: rural - R, urban - D

• Class: upper - R, lower - D

• Education: higher ed - D, Lower ed - R

• Race: AA  - 90% D, Latino-Mex AM - 60%

• Gender: Women - D (healthcare, equal $, education), Men - R (militray $ defense, taxes, foreign policy)

• Religion

What are the 7 factors of political socialization?

Voter Apathy

A lack of interest, enthusiasm, or participation in elections, often resulting in low voter turnout.

Political Elites

Individuals or groups with disproportionate influence over political decisions due to wealth, status, expertise, or connections, often shaping policies more than the general public.

Voting Expansion

The gradual increase of voting rights in the U.S., allowing more groups of people to vote through constitutional amendments and legislation, including:

• 15th Amendment: African American men

• 19th Amendment: Women

• 24th Amendment: Abolished poll taxes

• 26th Amendment: Lowered voting age to 18

Political Parties

Organized groups of people with shared political beliefs who work to win elections, influence policy, and organize government; in the U.S., the major parties are the Democrats and Republicans.

Two-Party System

A political system dominated by two major parties, making it difficult for third parties to win elections; in the U.S., these are the Democratic and Republican parties.

Result of federalism

Why are the structures of parties more skewed?

DNC (Democratic National Committee)

• The organization that leads the Democratic Party

• # of delegates - 2098

• Delegates are chosen - 87% of delegates chosen at the state elections (pledged)

• 13% Superdelegates - can choose candidate @ convention and their vote is weighed more heavily

• State delegations have benchmarks - 25% women, 25% minority

RNC (Republican National Committee)

• The organization that leads the Republican Party

• # of delegates - 1113

• Delegates are choosen: all elected by count level

• 100% of delegates are pledged

• No quotas or requirements

because it allows for a winner take all system, wins plurality

Why is a two party system so important for elections?

Idelogical Party

built around cohesive set of ideas (EX: Libertarian, Green)

Single Isssue Party

party built on a single issues (EX: Green Back Party, Free Soil Party) → tends to be the most successful because their issues typically get addressed by a D or R candidate

Economic Protest Party 

a party that rises to meet an emergency in the economy (EX: Populist Party)

Splinter Party

breaks off from 2 major parties → built around a person (EX: Dixiecrats, Bull Moose Party)

Yes…

• Act as a spoiler (decides outcome of elections)

• Introduce new ideas

• Change mechanics of US politics

Do third parties matter?

• Parties are less important

• Media is more important

• Polling is everywhere

• Money is everything

What are the four realities of political campaigns?

• Where is this money coming from?

• What is it being spend on?

• What’s this money get you?

• What are the rules regading raining/spending the money?

What are the most asked questions about money being spent in campaigns?

• Two Tones: Hopeful and Attack

• Attack Ads are the most successful because it can sway undecided voters and decrease support for opponents, especially in competitive elections.

What are the two tones for campaigns? Which one is used the most and why?

Congressional, presidential

What election is spending Media $ almost a 100% guarentee you will get the spot? Which one does on guarantee?

• US lacks public financing

• US uses two teir election system → use of primary and genereal elections

Why do we spend millions and billions of $ on campaigns?

POTUS Campaigns

• Larger size

• higher voter turnout

• more competitive

• can’t campaign on specifics

• can’t run as an outsider

Congressional Campaign

• smaller size

• lower voter turnout

• less competitive

• can campaign on specifics (leads to higher re-election rates)

• can run as an outsider

The United States has lower voter turnout than many other democracies because citizens must register themselves, elections are held on weekdays, and there are so many elections that people experience voter fatigue. Strict voter ID laws and a sense of political disillusionment also discourage many Americans from voting.

Why does the U.S. have lower turnout compared to other countries?

independent/moderate

How do most American’s identify politically?

1. Get metioned as potential candidate

2. Annoucement of candidate

3. Meet the requirements

4. Building National Organization (key is fundraising)

5. Deciding the tone of campaign

What do people have to do in order to run a POTUS campaign?

• 35 years old

• Natural born citizen

• lived in US for @ least 14 years

What are the FORMAL requirements for someone to run as POTUS?

• executive experince

• male

• Morality/marriage

• Christain

• White

• Age (60+)

What are the INFORMAL requirements for someone to run as POTUS?

• Can I win my district?

• Will my district be there in 2 years?

What are the two questions someone running for congressional campaigns have to ask themselves?

Gerrymandering

puroposeful drawing of congressional district lines to advance your party or to disadvantage the other party

Racial Gerrymandering

The manipulation of district boundaries to weaken or strengthen the voting power of a particular racial or ethnic group; ruled unconstitutional when used to dilute minority representation but sometimes allowed to protect minority voting rights under the Voting Rights Act.

Reno v Shaw

Supreme Court case that ruled racial gerrymandering is unconstitutional if race is the primary factor in drawing district lines without a compelling reason; districts must be compact, contiguous, and fairly drawn under the Equal Protection Clause of the 14th Amendment.

Baker v Carr

Supreme Court case that established the principle of “one person, one vote”, ruling that federal courts can intervene in redistricting cases to ensure equal representation under the 14th Amendment’s Equal Protection Clause

malapprotionment

An unequal distribution of representation in legislative districts, where some districts have significantly more or fewer people than others, giving certain voters more influence than others and violating the principle of “one person, one vote.”

reapportionment

process of dividing House seats amoung 50 states

• 1911 - House caps size @435 → run by the US Census Bureau

Texas, Flordia, Arizonia

Who are the typical “winners” regarding reapportionment?

New York, Ohio, and Pennsylvania

Who are the typical “losers” regarding reapportionment?

Open Primary Elections

any registered voter can vote in any party’s primary, regardless of their party affiliation (pros - independent voters have say, cons - party raiding)

Closed Primary Election

A type of primary election in which only registered party members can vote in their own party’s primary to choose that party’s candidate.

Caucus Election

A process used by political parties (instead of a regular primary) in which registered party members gather in local meetings to discuss, debate, and choose candidates or delegates.

Super Tuesday

The day in the presidential primary season when the largest number of U.S. states hold primaries and caucuses; it often plays a major role in determining each party’s nominee because many delegates are awarded on this single day.

Campaign Finace Act (1973)

• established the FEC

• caps individual contribution @ $1000

• allows for the creation of Political Action Committees (PACs)

  • Atleast 50 members

  • Must give $ to atleast 5 federal campaigns

  • limited to $5000 for indivudal candidates or $15000 to national party for “party building exercises”

People wanted the Campaign Finance Act (1973) because they were concerned about corruption and unfair influencein politics (WATERGATE). Wealthy donors, corporations, and special interest groups were pouring huge amounts of unregulated moneyinto campaigns, raising fears that politicians were being bought or influenced by big contributors instead of representing ordinary citizens. The act aimed to restore trust in government by making campaign funding more transparent and fair.

Why was the Campaign Finace Act (1973) established?

• Soft money

• Independent Exprenditures

What were the two major loopholes for the Campaign Finace Act?

Independent Exprenditures

$ spent on behalf of a campaign w/o coordinating with the candidate

Buckley v Valeo

Supreme Court case that upheld limits on campaign contributions to prevent corruption but struck down limits on candidates’ personal spending, ruling that spending money on one’s own campaign is a form of free speech protected by the First Amendment.

BCFRA (McCain-Feingold Act)

• Bans soft money

• Ind. Exp. - banned 60 days prior to primary, 30 days prior to genuine election

• Raise indivudal contribtion to $2,000

McConell v F.E.C

Supreme Court case that upheld most provisions of the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act (BCRA), also known as the McCain-Feingold Act; the Court ruled that limits on “soft money” contributions and restrictions on political adswere constitutional to reduce corruption and undue influence in elections.

Citizens United vs F.E.C

Supreme Court case that ruled corporations and unions can spend unlimited money on independent political ads, declaring that such spending is protected free speech under the First Amendment. This decision led to the rise of Super PACs, which can raise and spend unlimited funds as long as they don’t coordinate directly with candidates.