Studied by 20 people
SR / modality / 250ms / v large / attention
MSM - ______ (AO1)
Coding - ___________
Duration - _________
Capacity - _________
Transfer (forwards) - ___________
iconic / echoic / haptic / gustatory / olfactory
Where are the modalities of the SR’s coding?
STM / acoustic / 18-30 secs / 7+-2 items / repetition / rehearsal / displacement or decay
MSM - ______ (AO1)
Coding - ___________
Duration - _________
Capacity - _________
Transfer (maintenence in this store) - ___________
Transfer (forwards) - ____________
Transfer (downwards) - _______________
LTM / semantic / v large / unlimited
MSM - ______ (AO1)
Coding - ___________
Duration - _________
Capacity - _________
Glanzer + Cunitz / Baddeley
MSM - STM & LTM (AO3)
Who researched their separation?
Who researched their coding?
Sperling
Who researched the capacity and duration of the SR?
Jacobs / Peterson + Peterson
MSM - STM (AO3)
Who researched its capacity?
Who researched its duration?
Wagenaar / Bahrick
MSM - LTM (AO3)
Who researched its capacity?
Who researched its duration?
Glanzer + Cunitz / primary recency effect / LTM / STM / displaced
MSM - STM & LTM Separation: _______________ (AO3)
Found words at the starts and ends of word lists were more easily recalled (_________).
Suggests first words in ____ and last in ____. Middle words _____________.
primary recency effect / Glanzer + Cunitz / STM & LTM seperate / displaced
What is the name given to the effect when starts and ends of word lists are more easily recalled?
Who discovered this?
What did it prove?
What happened to the middle words?
Supported MSM by researching STM & LTM separation
What did Glanzer + Cunitz do?
Peterson + Peterson / triagrams / less than 10% / 18 secs / interference / 30
MSM - STM Duration: ___________ (AO3)
Found the recall of 3-letter ______________ (EG SYM, BUM) was _______________ after ________ in performing an _____________ task (_____ secs max). After 3 secs, correct recall was 80%.
Further suggestion: if unable to rehearse information, it will not be passed to long-term memory, providing further support for the multi-store model and the idea of discrete components.
Supported MSM by researching STM duration
What did Peterson + Peterson do?
SR / Sperling / 12 / 1/20 / 75 / large capacity / short duration
MSM - _____ Capacity & Duration: ____________ (AO3)
Findings: recall of random row (of a ____ letter grid, flashed for _____th of a second) was ____%.
Suggestions: all rows were stored in the SR (________). All of the letters cannot be written, as items were forgotten too quickly (___________).
Supported MSM by researching SR capacity & duration
What did Sperling do?
Baddeley / 10 / 4 / acoustically / semantically
MSM - STM & LTM Coding: _____________(AO3)
4x ___ word lists were given to ____ participant groups. Words that were acoutistically similar or dissimilar (G1 & G2) and semantically similar or dissimilar (G3 & G4).
Found recall after 20 minutes was the worst with ______________ similar and immediate recall was the worst for ______________ similar words.
Suggests STM is coded acoustically and LTM is coded semantically with similar sounds/meanings, causing confusion when recalled.
support MSM by researching STM & LTM coding
What did Baddeley do?
Jacobs / 7 / 7+-2 / chunking
MSM - Capacity of the STM: __________ (AO3)
Found the recall for lists of letters averaged ___ items, and 9 for numbers items.
Suggests the STM store has a limited capacity of ________. Can be improved by ___________.
Supported MSM by researching STM capacity
What did Jacobs do?
Wagenaar / 2400 / 75 / 45 / 5y / v large / unlimited
MSM - LTM Capacity: ___________ (AO3)
Created a diary (________ events over 6 years). He tested himself on events using cues.
Found ___% recall for critical details after 1 year and ____% after _________.
Suggests: LTM has a ____________ capacity, potentially __________.
supported MSM by discovering LTM capacity
What did Wagenaar do?
Bahrick / 90 / 15y / 80 / 48y / v large / unlimited
MSM - LTM Duration: _____________ (AO3)
Findings: the recall of schoolfriends’ names was ____% after ________, and _____% for names after ________ in participants ranging from 17-74 years.
Suggestions: LTM has a __________ duration, potentially ____________.
Supported MSM by researching LTM duration
What did Bahrick do?
3 / declarative / non declarative / episodic / semantic / procedural
LTM Types (AO1)
LTM is the storage of memories over a lengthy period of time. It is suggested that there are ___ types of LTM. These are either ___________ (explicit- meaning you can access them consciously and express the memory in words) or _____________ (implicit- not conscously recalled and are difficult to expain in words).
_____________: experience and events that are referenced to time and place.
_____________: facts, meanings and knowledge.
____________: unconscious memories of skills.
procedural / non declarative / resistant / episodic & semantic / motor cortex & cerebellum
LTM Types - ________________ (AO1)
Unconscious memories of skills.
These are _______________.
More ___________ to forgetting than the ___________ stores.
Association with the ______________.
semantic / declarative / longer / episodic / perirhinal cortex
LTM Types - ____________________ (AO1)
Facts, meanings and knowledge.
These are ____________.
The strength is from the processing depth.
Lasts __________ than the _____________ store, and it becomes this type over time.
Associated with the _______________.
episodic / declarative / autobiographical / emotion / hippocampus & prefrontal cortex
LTM Types - _______________ (AO1)
Experience and events that are referenced to time and place.
These are __________ and ______________.
The strength of memory is influenced by _____________.
Associated with the _____________.
long term potentiation / noradrenaline / locus coerulus / pons / hippocampus / phosphate
LTM Types - Episodic: How does Emotion affect Memory Encoding?
Make it easier for _________________________ to occur with fewer repetitions.
___________________ released by neurons originating in the _______________ (found in the ________) triggers a cascade of changes within cells in the _________________.
An enzyme adds ______________ groups to receptors in the postsynaptic neuron. This makes it easier for more receptors to be inserted in the cell membrane, so the connection is strengthened and the memory forms easily.
generalising / ideographic / fMRI / nomothetic / declarative / semantic / language / semantic & procedural / Vargha Kadhem, Clive Wearing
LTM Types (AO3)
_____________ the findings of ___________ clinical case studies to explain how memory works in the wider population is problematic. Other unknown issues could be unique to the individual behaviours.
Tulving’s ______ studies identified which types of LTM are associated with particular brain areas in healthy brains. This had allowed ideas gained by case studies to be studied via ____________ methods.
Types of LTM may not be truly distinct. Episodic & semantic memories are both ____________; episodic becomes ____________ over time, and we can produce automatic _____________ (combining ____________________)
What are 2 pieces of supporting research?
Vargha Kadhem / hippocampus / parahippocampal cortices / episodic amnesia / semantic / semantic & episodic
LTM Types: ____________ (AO3)
Findings: 3 children with damage to the _____________ region (______________ unaffected), had _____________. They were still able to attend school, speak and learn facts (___________ info).
Suggests _____________ memory use different brain regions.
Clive Wearing / HSV 1 / necrotizing inflammation / retrograde amnesia / episodic / semantic / procedural / anterograde amnesia / episodic or semantic / procedural / repetition
LTM Types (AO3)
_____________ contracted __________ which caused ____________________ (cell death) of the brain.
_____________, so he can’t remember his musical education or weddding (____________ info).
However, he remembers facts about his life (___________ info). He can play the piano (____________ info).
Due to ______________, he can’t encode new ______________ memories but can gain new ___________ memories in experiments via ___________.
Suggestions: the 3 types of memory are seperate, using different brain areas.
Baddeley + Hitch / STM / active processor / CE / 2 secs / PL / VSS / EB
WMM (AO1)
_______________ (1974) devised a theoretical cognitive model of information processing. This was created to replace the ___________ store in the MSM. Instead, this model is an ___________ made up of multiple stores, whereas it was previously a passive and unitary store.
____ - head of the model, receives sense information, controls attention and filters info before passing on to the subsystems. Limited in capacity (_________) and capable of dealing with only 1 strand of information at a time
Subsystems: P__, V__, E_____
acoustic / 2 second / primary acoustic store / articulatory process
WMM - PL (AO1)
Temporarily retains language-based information.
______________ coding
______________ capacity
Contains:
_______________ (inner ear, storing words recently heard)
________________ (inner voice, storing via sub-vocal repetition)
visual cache / inner scribe
WMM - VSS (AO1)
Temporarily retains visual and spatial information.
____________ (passive store of form and colour)
____________ (active store of relationships in 3D space)
active processor / external validity / mundane realism / generalise / CE
WMM (AO3)
WMM seems more accurate than the STM component of the MSM in describing how memory is used as an ______________. Psychologists now refer to this model instead of STM.
In most studies on memory tasks, there are issues with ___________; they lack ______________ as the tasks are unrealistic/artificial so they may not accurately _______________ how we use memory in day-to-day life.
Other psychologists have criticised the ______ as a concept that does not have a full explanation of its function. The researchers admits this concept needs development and included the assumptions as part of this.
It’s impossible to directly observe the process of memory described in models like the WMM. This means inferences must be made, which are assumptions about cognitive processes; these assumption could be incorrect.
2 Baddeley / Shallice + Warrington / Prabhakaran
Who’s research can be used to evaluate the WMM?
2 visual tasks / 1 visual & 1 verbal task / VSS & PL / capacity / visual information
WMM - Baddeley (AO3)
Participants asked to do ___________ (tracking moving lights and describing the angles of the letter F) or do ____________.
Findings: performance was much better when the tasks were not using the same processing.
Suggestions: ______________ are seperate systems, and the ___________ of the VSS can be overwhelmed with _____________.
Baddeley
Who suggested that the VSS and PL are seperate systems and the capacity of the VSS can be overwhelmed with visual info?
verbal STM / visual / PL / VSS
WMM - Shallice + Warrington (AO3)
Post-brain injury, KF has a selective impairment to his ___________, but ________ functioning was not affected.
Suggests _____ & ____ subsystems are separate processes located in different brain regions.
Shallice + Warrington / KF
WMM (AO3)
Who suggested that visuo-spatial sketchpad and phonological group subsystems are separate processes located in different brain regions?
Who was the participant in their research?
fMRI / pfc / posterior regions / eb / pfc
WMM - Prabhakaran (AO3)
Participants in ________’s completed tasks with intergrated or seperate spatial and verbal information.
Findings: When integrated, more activation in _____; when information is not integrated, more activation in ___________.
Suggestions: The ______ exists and its location is the _____, brain region specialised in the combination and temporary storage of visual and verbal/auditory information..
Prabhakaran
Who’s research supported that the episodic buffer exists and its location is the prefrontal cortex?
PL / 2 secs / word length effect / articulatory suppression / CE
WMM - Baddeley (AO3)
Found participants could recall more monosyllabic words than polysyllabic words.
Suggests the capacity of the ________ is the time it takes to say the words, approximately ____________ (_____________).
Later research showed this effect to disappear by ________________________ (repeating an irrelevant sound, “la, la, la, la”) due to filling the PL and taking away the advantage of rehearsal. Role of ____ in taking over recall task (some word could be recalled).
Smith + Jonides / left hemisphere perisylvian language / right posterior / Baddeley / binding processes / Henson
WMM - Brain Imaging Techniques (AO3)
______________________ (1997) - found that tasks tapping phonological storage tend to activate more ___________________________ areas, whereas visuospatial tasks activate more ____________________ regions like the parietal cortex.
___________________ (2012) - overall pattern of results remains complex and controversial; meta-analyses often fail to show consistent localization of verbal and visuospatial working memory; suggests that each component likely comprises a complex neural circuit rather than a circumscribed brain area.
Significant overlap in activation, which may reflect ______________________ through the episodic buffer, as well as common executive demands.
_______________ (2001) - differences in paradigms and limitations of neuroimaging methodology further complicate mapping the components of working memory onto distinct brain regions or circuits.
interference theory / proactive / retroactive / response competition / time sensitivity
Forgetting Explanations - ___________________
(AO1)
We forget because our long term memory becomes confused (disrupted) by other information while it’s coded.
Can be categorised into ___________ and ______________.
Similarly, interference is more likely to occur when the two pieces of info are similar due to _______________.
______________: interference is less likely to occur when there is a large gap between learning.
(AO3)
Interference only explains forgetting when two set s of info are similar and learnt close together in time. This means the theory struggles to explain many day-to-day examples of forgetting.
response competition
What is the term for interference being more likely to occur when the two pieces of info are similar?
proactive interference / old / new / Greenberg + Underwood / decreased / coding
Forgetting Explanations - ______________
(AO1)
____ information disrupts _____. Interference works forward in time when old information already stored interferes with recalling something new.
(AO3) ________________________
Participants were given a list of 10-word pairs to learn. Every 48 hours, they were given a new list.
Findings: the number of correctly recalled word pairs _____________ with the more word pairs that had been learnt previously.
Suggestions: previously learnt word combinations caused confusion in the _________ of the later word lists.
research proactive interference to explain forgetting
What did Greenberg + Underwood do?
retroactive interference / new / old / Schmidt / 211 / recalling
Forgetting Explanations - ______________
(AO1)
_____ information disrupts _____. Interference works backwards in time when new information being stored interferes with the recall of old information.
(AO3) _______________
Sent a questionnaire to _______ 11-79 year olds which included the area around their old school without street names.
Found the more times an individual moved home, the fewer street names could be recalled.
Suggests adding new street names to memory makes ____________ old street names harder.
street names / retroactive interference
What was the questionnaire which Schmidt sent out about for particpants? What was the questionnaire which Schmidt sent out about for himself?
research retroactive interference to explain forgetting
What did Schmidt do?
Schmidt / Baddeley + Hitch / Postman
Who’s research can be used to evaluate retroactive interference?
Baddeley + Hitch / rugby players with more matches forgot proportionately more games than injured players
Who had similar findings to Schmidt regarding retroactive interference? What were their findings?
Postman / independent groups - control group given 1 list, experimental group given 2 lists
Who did lab experimentation on retroactive interference? How did they do this?
cue dependent / LTM / encoding specificity principle / context / state / category / context cues / CI
Forgetting Explanations - __________________
(AO1)
Information is in the ______ but forgetting happens due to the absence of appropriate cues / prompts encoded at the same time (_______________)
This can be categorised into _____________, ___________ and _____________.
(AO3)
As interference and cue theory only explain a temporary loss of information and not permanent, they may not be valid explanations of forgetting.
Practical applications: students can develop effective revision strategies and theories like “_____________ improve recall” have been used in the development of the ______.
forgetting due to cue absence encoded at same time
What is the encoding specificity principle?
context dependent cues / external / Godden + Baddeley
Forgetting Explanations - ______________
(AO1)
Aspects of _______ environment work as cues to memory (sights, sound, smells). Being in a different place inhibits memory as we lack these cues.
(AO3) ______________
Material learnt underwater or on land.
Findings: recall was best with divers if they learnt in the same context as tested.
Suggestions: evironmental cues promote recall.
Abernathy / context dependent forgetting
Who found that participants, after learning some material, performed worse on a test when tested by an unfamiliar teacher in unfamiliar surroundings than when they were tested by a familiar teacher in familiar surroundings? What did this provide evidence for?
divers
Who were the participants in Godden + Baddeley’s research?
research context dependant cues as forgetting explanation
What did Godden + Baddeley do?
state dependent cues / internal / Overton
Forgetting Explanations - ______________
(AO1)
Aspects of our _________ environment work as cues to memory (emotions, drugs, state of arousal). Being in a different emotional state inhibits memory as we lack these cues.
(AO3) ______________
Material learnt drunk or sober.
Found recall was best in the same state.
Suggests internal cues promote recall.
Darley et al / state dependent forgetting
Who found that participants were better at remembering where they had hidden money if they were asked when they were under the influence of marijuana? What does this provide evidence for?
research state dependent cues to explain forgetting
What did Overton do?
category dependent cues / Tulving + Pearlstone / 48 word free recall / 12 4 word category
Forgetting Explanations - ______________
(AO1)
Providing cues that relate to the organisation of memories aids recall. The most effective cues have fewer things associated with them. The lack of these cues inhibits memory.
(AO3) _________________________
________________ or _______________ recall.
Found participants recalled significantly more when given category headings.
Suggests categories acted as cues and aided recall.
research category dependent cues to explain forgetting
What did Tulving + Pearlstone do?
48 words free recall / 12 4 word categories
What two ways did Tulving + Pealstone ask participants to recall? (include numbers in answer)
proactive & retroactive interference / context, state & category dependent cues
What are the explanations for forgetting?
Bartlett / reconstructive memory / confabulations
Factors Affecting EWT Accuracy (AO1)
___________ (1932) argued memory is not an accurate recording of events.
It is reconstructed in recalling (_____________) and may produce errors (_____________) that the schemas influence.
leading questions / post event contamination / anxiety
What are the factors which affect the accuracy of EWT?
CI / demand characteristics / response bias explanation / ethical guidelines
Factors Affecting EWT Accuracy (AO3)
Research on the limitations of EWT has led to real-life applications. One example is the development of the ____ which is designed to reduce the influence of schemas on the accuracy of recall.
Lab-based EWT research may suffer from ______________ were participants pick up the language used and feel social pressure to give an answer that they think will help the researcher (_____________).
Research that deceives participants and causes anxiety breaks ____________.
leading questions / substitution bias / response bias / Loftus + Palmer / 31.8 / 40.8 / broken glass
Factors Affecting EWT Accuracy - ______________
(AO1)
This can influence how memory is recalled, either due to an actual change to the memory (___________) or due to emotional pressure to give a particular response (____________).
(AO3) _____________
After watching a clip of a car crash, participants were asked “how fast were the cars going when they (x) into each other?” with the verb (x) wither being smashed, collidied, bumped, hit or contacted.
Findings:
The more extreme the verb, the faster the estimation of speed. eg Contacted = ______mph whereas Smashed = _______mph.
Participants brought back in after a week and those in the smashed group were more likely to perceive there being _____________________.
Suggestions: leading questions influence recall.
Loftus + Palmer
Who suggested that leading questions influence recall?
actual change to memory / emotional pressure to give particular response
What is substitution bias due to? What is response bias due to?
post event contamination / memory conformity
Factors Affecting EWT Accuracy - _____________________ (AO1)
The recall of events by one witness alters the accuracy of another witness’s recollection.
This could be __________________ (witnesses going along with others’ accounts for social approval.
post event contamination / 71% / Bodner / less / violent
Factors Affecting EWT Accuracy - __________________ (AO3)
Gabbert
Pairs of participants watched different videos of the same crime.
Findings: when the pairs were able to discuss what they had seen, ______ included information that was not in their EWT.
Suggestions: witnesses will change their accounts of crimes to match other witnesses’ testimonies.
_____________ - when participants were warned about the danger of post-event discussion, witnesses changed their EWT _____.
__________ crimes cause high anxiety in eyewitnesses. Lab-based research in EWT that has no emotional impact on the participant can be argued to have low validity when applied to real EWT.
Gabbert / post event contamination
Who suggested that witnesses will change their accounts of crimes to match other witnesses’ testimonies? Why was this?
Bodner
Who found that when participants were warned about the danger of post-event discussion, witnesses changed their EWT less?
anxiety / weapon effect / memory coding / law of arousal
Factors Affecting EWT Accuracy - ______________ (AO1)
A mental state of arousal that includes feelings of extreme concern, tension and physiological changes such as an increased HR.
High anxiety levels may decrease recall due to _____________ with this averting the witnesses’ attention.
High anxiety levels may increase recall as it improves alertness and awereness of the situation and surroundings; additionally, these intense emotions felt could improve ______________.
Yerks-Dodson’s ________________: EWT accuracy increases as anxiety rises as the witness becomes alert. However, at a point, anxiety becomes too high and more stress / distraction results in a lower accuracy.
Yerks-Dodson
Who researched the law of arousal and how this affects the accuracy of EWT?
Johnson + Scott / 49 / 33 / Yuille + Cutshall / 4 months / 13
Factors Affecting EWT Accuracy - Anxiety (AO3)
________________
Naive participants overheard (a) normal conversation, a man walks out with greasy hands and a pen or (b) hostile, broken glass and furniture knocked over, a man walks out with a bloody knife.
Findings: _____% identified the man with the pen (a) from 50 photos; _____% identified the man with the knife (b).
Suggestions: Participants were weapon-focused due to anxiety caused by the knife.
________________
Found when interviewed ______________ after witnessing a real-life deadly shooting, _____ witnesses resisted misleading info, and those with the most stress (closest to the shooter) produced the most accurate EWT.
49% / 33%
In Johnson + Scott’s research into how anxiety affects the accuracy of EWT…
what percentage identified the man with the pen?
what percentage identified the man with the knife?
those w most stress (closest to shooter)
In Yuille + Cutshall’s research, which participants produced the most accurate EWT?
SI / CI / context reinstatement / everything / changed perspective / reversed order
Improving EWT Accuracy (AO1)
Innacurate: numerous research studies have shows this due to factors such as anxiety, leading questions and post-event contamination.
Fisher (1987) defined the _____ from observations of police interviews in Florida where quick, direct and closed questions were asked. They led the recall so witnesses couldn’t talk freely and were frequently interrupted.
Fisher + Geiselman (1985) suggested the _____ as an improvement.
_____________ - mentally returning to the crime scene, this triggers environmental / emotional context cues.
Report ___________ - all details, even if they seem irrelevant, should be mentionned.
Recall from a ________________ - consider the view of other witnesses / perpetrators to disrupt schema.
Recall in a ____________ - switching to a different chronology / timeline to check the accuracy of recall and challenge expectations.
define SI
In 1987, what did Fisher do?
Fisher + Geiselman
In 1985, who suggested the cognitive interview as an improvement of EWT?
context reinstatement / report everything / changed perspective / changed order
What are the components of the cognitive interview?
cost benefit analysis / identity paroles / egocentric / mCI / Fisher, Koehnken, Milne + Bull, Geiselman
Improving EWT Accuracy (AO3)
The CI is time-consuming and requires significant training & investment, diverting officers from their normal work. The CI may not be adopted due to the limited financial resources.
______________ may argue that the CI is worth the additional resources invested in training to make a more effective police force, with the CI ultimately reducing crime and its cost to broader society.
The CI is not effective in improving recognition of suspects in ______________ and from photos. This means the CI has limited usefulness in several everyday police activities involving EWT.
The CI is not effective with very young children as they are ____________ (only see the world from their perspective). Holliday created a _______ adapted to children’s developmental level.
What are the 4 supporting researches?
Geiselman / 41.2 / 38.0 / 29.4 / error frequency
Improving EWT Accuracy - ______________ (AO3)
Participants viewed a film of a violent crime and, after 48 hours, were interviewed by a policeman using one of three methods: the cognitive interview; a standard interview used by the Los Angeles Police; or an interview using hypnosis. The number of facts accurately recalled and the number of errors made were recorded.
Findings: The average number of correctly recalled facts for the…
cognitive interview was _______
hypnosis it was _______
standard interview it was _______.
There was no significant difference in the _______________ in each condition.
Suggests rhe cognitive interview leads to better memory of events, with witnesses able to recall more relevant information compared with a traditional interview method.
Holliday
Who created a modified cognitive interview adapted to children’s developmental level?
Koehnken / meta analysis / 85 / 82
Improving EWT Accuracy - ______________ (AO3)
A ___________ of 42 CI studies, including over 2500 interviews
Found a significant increase in the amount of correct info recalled. However, a significant amount of incorrect information recalled resulted in a similar accuracy rate of ____% CI and ____% SI
Suggests CI may be of limited practical use due to increased errors.
CI
What did Koehnken do research into disproving?
Fisher / 47 / 63
Improving EWT Accuracy - ______________ (AO3)
7 detectives trained in the CI were compared with 9 detectives using the SI.
Findings: CI detectives produced _____% more information in real interviews after their training and ____% more than SI detectives.
Suggestions: CI effectively enhances the memory of witnesses in the real world.
CI
What did Fisher do research into proving?
Milne + Bull / context reinstatement & report everything
Improving EWT Accuracy - ______________ (AO3)
Findings: each aspect of the CI produced a similar level of recall; however, the ________________________ conditions produced significantly more correct recall.
Suggestions: no singular aspect is more important in the CI, but the effect of it is cumulative.
CI
What did Milne + Bull do research into proving?
context reinstatement / report everything
In Milne + Bull’s accuracy of EWT research, which conditions produced more recall?
Note 
Flashcard (64)