Studied by 14 people
Multi-store / sensory register / modality / 250ms / very large / attention / short term memory / acoustic / 18-30 seconds / 7+-2 items / repeating / rehearsal / displacement or decay / long term memory / semantic / very high / unlimited
_______________ model of memory (AO1)
Attkinson + Shiffrin (1968): a theoretical cognitive model of how the memory system processes information.
1st store: _____________
Coding - ___________
Duration - _________
Capacity - _________
Transfer (forwards) - ___________
2nd store: _____________
Coding - ___________
Duration - _________
Capacity - _________
Transfer (maintenence in this store) - ___________
Transfer (forwards) - ____________
Transfer (downwards) - _______________
3rd store: _____________
Coding - ___________
Duration - _________
Capacity - _________
Glanzer + Cunitz
Who discovered that the STM & LTM are seperate?
Spearing
Who discovered the capacity and duration of the SR?
Baddeley
Who discovered the coding of the STM and LTM?
Jacobs
Who researched the capacity of the STM?
Peterson + Peterson
Who discovered the duration of the STM?
Wagenaar
Who discovered the capacity of the LTM?
Bahrick
Who discovered the duration of the LTM?
Glanzer + Cunitz / primary recency effect / LTM / STM / displaced
Multi Store Model of Memory - STM + LTM Separation: _______________ (AO3)
Found words at the starts and ends of word lists were more easily recalled (_________). Suggests: first words in ____ and last in ____; however, middle words were _____________.
primary recency effect / Glanzer + Cunitz / STM & LTM are seperate / displaced
What is the name given to the effect when starts and ends of word lists are more easily recalled?
Who discovered this?
What did it prove?
What happened to the middle words?
Supported MSM by researching STM and LTM are seperate
What did Glanzer + Cunitz do?
Peterson + Peterson / triagrams / less than 10% / 18 secs / interference / 30
Multi-store Model of Memory - Duration of the STM: ___________ (AO3)
Found the recall of 3-letter ______________ (EG SYM, BUM) was _______________ after ________ in performing an _____________ task (_____ secs max). After 3 secs, correct recall was 80%.
Further suggestion: if unable to rehearse information, it will not be passed to long-term memory, providing further support for the multi-store model and the idea of discrete components.
Supported MSM by discovering duration of STM
What did Peterson & Peterson do?
SR / Spearing / 12 / 1/20 / 75 / large capacity / short duration
Multi-Store Model of Memory - Capacity & Duration of the _____: ____________ (AO3)
Findings: recall of random row (of a ____ letter grid, flashed for _____th of a second) was ____%.
Suggestions: all rows were stored in the SR (________). All of the letters cannot be written, as items were forgotten too quickly (___________).
Supported MSM by discovering capacity and duration of SR
What did Spearing do?
STM / LTM / Baddeley / 10 / 4 / acoustically / semantically / acoustically / semantically / acoustically / semantically
Multi-store model of memory - Coding of the ______ and _____: _____________(AO3)
Four ___ word lists were given to ____ participant groups. Words that were ___________ similar or dissimilar (G1 & G2) and ____________ similar or dissimilar (G3 & G4).
Findings: recall after 20 minutes was the worst with ______________ similar and immediate recall was the worst for ______________ similar words.
Suggestions: STM is coded ___________ and LTM is coded __________ with similar sounds/meanings, causing confusion when recalled.
Supported MSM by discovering coding of STM + LTM
What did Baddeley do?
Jacobs / 7 / 7+-2 / chunking
Multi-store Model of Memory - Capacity of the STM: __________ (AO3)
Found the recall for lists of letters averaged ___ items, and 9 for numbers items.
Suggests: the STM store has a limited capacity of ________. However, this can be improved by ___________.
Supported MSM by researching STM capacity
What did Jacobs do?
Wagenaar / 2400 / 75 / 45 / 5 years / very high / unlimited
Multi-store Model of Memory - Capacity of the LTM: ___________ (AO3)
Created a diary (________ events over 6 years). He tested himself on events using cues.
Found ___% recall for critical details after 1 year and ____% after _________.
Suggests: LTM has a ____________ capacity, potentially __________.
Supported MSM by discovering capacity of LTM
What did Wagenaar do?
Bahrick / 90 / 15 years / 80 / 48 years / very high / unlimited
Multi Store Model of Memory - Duration of the LTM: _____________ (AO3)
Findings: the recall of schoolfriends’ names was ____% after ________, and _____% for names after ________ in participants ranging from 17-74 years.
Suggestions: LTM has a __________ duration, potentially ____________.
Supported MSM by discovering duration of LTM
What did Bahrick do?
3 / declarative / non-declarative / episodic / semantic / procedural
Types of Long-Term memory (AO1)
LTM is the storage of memories over a lengthy period of time. It is suggested that there are ___ types of LTM. These are either ___________ (explicit- meaning you can access them consciously and express the memory in words) or _____________ (implicit- not conscously recalled and are difficult to expain in words).
_____________: experience and events that are referenced to time and place.
_____________: facts, meanings and knowledge.
____________: unconscious memories of skills.
procedural / non-declarative / resistant / episodic + semantic / motor cortex + cerebellum
Types of Long Term Memory (AO1)
____________: unconscious memories of skills.
These are _______________.
More ___________ to forgetting than the ___________ stores.
Association with the ______________.
procedural
What type of LTM are the motor cortex + cerebellum associated with?
semantic / declarative / longer / episodic / perirhinal cortex
Types of Long-Term Memory (AO1)
_____________: facts, meanings and knowledge.
These are ____________.
The strength is from the processing depth.
Lasts __________ than the _____________ store, and it becomes this type over time.
Associated with the _______________.
semantic
What type of LTM is the perihinal cortex associated with?
episodic / declarative / auto-biographical / emotion / hippocampus + prefrontal cortex
Types of Long Term memory (AO1)
_____________: experience and events that are referenced to time and place.
These are __________ and ______________.
The strength of memory is influenced by _____________.
Associated with the _____________.
episodic
What type of LTM are the hippocampus + prefrontal cortex associated with?
espisodic / procedural / semantic
What are the types of LTM?
procedural
Which type of long-term memory is non-declarative?
semantic / episodic
Which type of long-term memory are declarative?
generalising / ideographic / fMRI / nomothetic / episodic & semantic / declarative / episodic / semantic / language / semantic & procedural / Vargha-Kadhem / Clive Wearing
Types of Long Term Memory (AO3)
_____________ the findings of ___________ clinical case studies to explain how memory works in the wider population is problematic. Other unknown issues could be unique to the individual behaviours.
Tulving’s ______ studies identified which types of LTM are associated with particular brain areas in healthy brains. This had allowed ideas gained by case studies to be studied via ____________ methods.
Types of LTM may not be truly distinct. ________________________ memories are both ____________; ___________ becomes ____________ over time, and we can produce automatic _____________ (combining ____________________)
What are 2 pieces of supporting research?
Vargha-Kadhem / hippocampus / parahippocampal cortices / episodic amnesia / semantic / semantic + episodic
Types of Long-term Memory: ____________ (AO3)
Findings: 3 children with damage to the _____________ region (not the ______________), had _____________. They were still able to attend school, speak and learn facts (___________ info).
Suggestions: _____________ memory use different brain regions.
Clive Wearing / HSV-1 / necrotizing inflammation / retrograde amnesia / episodic / semantic / procedural / anterograde amnesia / episodic or semantic / procedural / repetition
Types of Long-term Memory (AO3)
_____________ contracted __________ which caused ____________________ (cell death) of the brain.
_____________, so he can’t remember his musical education or weddding (____________ info).
However, he remembers facts about his life (___________ info). He can play the piano (____________ info).
Due to ______________, he can’t encode new ______________ memories but can gain new ___________ memories in experiments via ___________.
Suggestions: the 3 types of memory are seperate, using different brain areas.
What’s the difference between Anterograde Amnesia and Retrograde Amnesia?
Baddeley + Hitch / STM / active processor / CE / 2 seconds / PL / VSS / EB
Working Model of Memory (AO1)
_______________ (1974) devised a theoretical cognitive model of information processing. This was created to replace the ___________ store in the MSM. Instead, this model is an ___________ made up of multiple stores, whereas it was previously a passive and unitary store.
___: head of the model, receives sense information, controls attention and filters info before passing on to the subsystems. Limited in capacity (_________) and capable of dealing with only 1 strand of information at a time
Subsystems: P__, V__, E_____
acoustic / 2 second / primary acoustic store / articulatory process
Working Model of Memory (AO1)
Phonological loop - temporarily retains language-based information
______________ coding
______________ capacity
Contains:
_______________ (inner ear, storing words recently heard)
________________ (inner voice, storing via sub-vocal repetition)
visual cache / inner scribe
Working Model of Memory (AO1)
Visuo-spatial sketchpad - temporarily retains visual and spatial information
____________ (passive store of form and colour)
____________ (active store of relationships in 3D space)
episodic buffer
Working Model of Memory (AO1)
_______________ - added to the WMM in 2000, as the model needed a general store to hold and combine information from the subsystems.
active processor / external validity / mundane realism / generalise / central executive / Baddeley / Shallice + Warrington / Prabhakaran / Baddeley
Working Model of Memory (AO3)
WMM seems more accurate than the STM component of the MSM in describing how memory is used as an ______________. Psychologists now refer to this model instead of STM.
In most studies on memory tasks, there are issues with ___________; they lack ______________ as the tasks are unrealistic/artificial so they may not accurately _______________ how we use memory in day-to-day life.
Other psychologists have criticised the ____________ as a concept that does not have a full explanation of its function. The researchers admits this concept needs development and included the assumptions as part of this.
It’s impossible to directly observe the process of memory described in models like the WMM. This means inferences must be made, which are assumptions about cognitive processes; these assumption could be incorrect.
Example case studies:
B__________
S_______ + W____________
P_____________
B___________
2 visual tasks / 1 visual + 1 verbal task / VSS + PL / capacity / visual information
Working Model of Memory (AO3) - Baddeley
Participants asked to do ___________ (tracking moving lights and describing the angles of the letter F) or do ____________.
Findings: performance was much better when the tasks were not using the same processing.
Suggestions: ______________ are seperate systems, and the ___________ of the VSS can be overwhelmed with _____________.
Baddeley
Who suggesred that the VSS and PL are seperate systems and the capacity of the VSS can be overwhelmed with visual info?
verbal STM / visual / PL / VSS
Working Model of Memory (AO3) - Shallice + Warrington
Post-brain injury, KF has a selective impairment to his ___________, but ________ functioning was not affected.
Suggestions: _____ & ____ subsystems are separate processes located in different brain regions.
KF
Who did Shallice + Warrington research on?
Shallice + Warrington
Who suggested that visuo-spatial sketchpad and phonological group subsystems are separate processes located in different brain regions?
fMRI / prefrontal cortex / posterior brain regions / episodic buffer / prefrontal cortex
Working Model of Memory (AO3) - Prabhakaran
Participants in ________’s completed tasks with intergrated or seperate spatial and verbal information.
Findings: When integrated, more activation in _______________; when information is not integrated, more activation in ___________.
Suggestions: The ______________ exists and its location is the _____________, brain region specialised in the combination and temporary storage of visual and verbal/auditory information..
Prabhakaran
Who suggested that the episodic buffer exists and its location is the prefrontal cortex?
prefrontal cortex
Which brain region is the episodic buffer in?
PL / 2 secs / word length effect
Working Model of Memory (AO3) - Baddeley
Findings: found participants could recall more monosyllabic words than polysyllabic words.
Suggestions: the capacity of the ____________ is the time it takes to say the words, approximately ____________ (_____________).
interference theory / proactive interference / retro-active interference / response competition / time-sensitivity
Explanations for Forgetting
(AO1)
_______________: we forget because our long term memory becomes confused (disrupted) by other information while it’s coded.
This can be categorised into ___________ and ______________.
Similarly, interference is more likely to occur when the two pieces of info are similar due to _______________.
______________: interference is less likely to occur when there is a large gap between learning.
(AO3)
Interference only explains forgetting when two set s of info are similar and learnt close together in time. This means the theory struggles to explain many day-to-day examples of forgetting.
response competition
What is the term for interference being more likely to occur when the two pieces of info are similar?
proactive interference / old / new / coding
Explanations for Forgetting - ______________
(AO1)
____ information disrupts _____. Interference works forward in time when old information already stored interferes with recalling something new.
(AO3) Greenberg + Underwood
Participants were given a list of 10-word pairs to learn. Every 48 hours, they were given a new list.
Findings: the number of correctly recalled word pairs decreased with the more word pairs that had been learnt previously.
Suggestions: previously learnt word combinations caused confusion in the _________ of the later word lists.
research proactive interference as explanation for forgetting
What did Greenberg + Underwood do?
proactive
Which type of interference is where old information disrupts new?
retroactive interference / new / old / Schmidt / 211 / recalling
Explanations for Forgetting - ______________
(AO1)
_____ information disrupts _____. Interference works backwards in time when new information being stored interferes with the recall of old information.
(AO3) _______________
Sent a questionnaire to _______ 11-79 year olds which included the area around their old school without street names.
Findings: the more times an individual moved home, the fewer street names could be recalled.
Suggestions: Adding new street names to memory makes ____________ old street names harder.
street names / retroactive interference
What was the questionnaire which Schmidt sent out about for particpants? What was the questionnaire which Schmidt sent out about for himself?
research retroactive interference as explanation for forgetting
What did Schmidt do?
Schmidt
Who did research into retroactive interference?
retroactive interference
Which type of interference is where new information disrupts old?
Baddeley + Hitch / rugby players with more matches forgot proportionately more games than injured players
Who had similar findings to Schmidt regarding retroactive interference? What were their findings?
Postman / independent groups - control group given 1 list, experimental group given 2 lists
Who did lab experimentation on retroactive interference? How did they do this?
cue dependent forgetting / LTM / encoding specificity principle / context / state / category / context cues / cognitive interview
Explanations for Forgetting
(AO1)
_______________: information is in the ______ but forgetting happens due to the absence of appropriate cues / prompts encoded at the same time (_______________)
This can be categorised into _____________, ___________ and _____________.
(AO3)
As interference and cue theory only explain a temporary loss of information and not permanent, they may not be valid explanations of forgetting.
Practical applications: students can develop effective revision strategies and theories like “_____________ improve recall” have been used in the development of an effective police technique called the___________________.
forgetting happens due to absence of cues encoded at same time
What is the encoding specificity principle?
context dependant cues / external / Godden + Baddeley
Explanations for Forgetting - ______________
(AO1)
Aspects of _______ environment work as cues to memory (sights, sound, smells). Being in a different place inhibits memory as we lack these cues.
(AO3) ______________
Material learnt underwater or on land.
Findings: recall was best with divers if they learnt in the same context as tested.
Suggestions: evironmental cues promote recall.
Abernathy / context-dependent forgetting
Who found that participants, after learning some material, performed worse on a test when tested by an unfamiliar teacher in unfamiliar surroundings than when they were tested by a familiar teacher in familiar surroundings? What did this provide evidence for?
divers
Who were the participants in Godden + Baddeley’s research?
research context dependant cues as an explanation for forgetting
What did Godden + Baddeley do?
state dependant cues / internal / Overton
Explanations for Forgetting - ______________
(AO1)
Aspects of our _________ environment work as cues to memory (emotions, drugs, state of arousal). Being in a different emotional state inhibits memory as we lack these cues.
(AO3) ______________
Material learnt drunk or sober.
Findings: recall was best in the same state.
Suggestions: internal cues promote recall.
Darley et al / state-dependent forgetting
Who found that participants were better at remembering where they had hidden money if they were asked when they were under the influence of marijuana? What does this provide evidence for?
research state dependent cues as explanation for forgetting
What did Overton do?
category dependant cues / category
Explanations for Forgetting - ______________
(AO1)
Providing cues that relate to the organisation of memories aids recall. The most effective cues have fewer things associated with them. The lack of these cues inhibits memory.
(AO3) Tulving + Pealstone
Participants either used free recall (answering in any order) to recall 48 words or were asked to recall to match twelve 4-word categories.
Findings: participants recalled significantly more in the ____________ condition.
Suggestions: categories acted as cues and aided recall.
research category dependent cues as explanation for forgetting
What did Tulving + Pealstone do?
free recall of 48 words / 12 4 word categories
What two ways did Tulving + Pealstone ask participants to recall? (include numbers in answer)
proactive interference / retroactive interference / context dependant cues / state dependant cues / category dependant cues
What are the explanations for forgetting?
Bartlett / reconstructive memory / confabulations
Factors Affecting the Accuracy of Eyewitness Testimony (AO1)
___________ (1932) argued memory is not an accurate recording of events; it is reconstructed in recalling (_____________) and may produce errors (_____________) that the schemas influence.
leading questions / post-event contamination / anxiety
What are the factors which affect the accuracy of EWT?
cognitive interview / demand characteristics / response bias explanation / ethical guidelines
Factors Affecting the Accuracy of Eyewitness Testimony (AO3)
Research on the limitations of EWT has led to real-life applications. One example is the development of the ____________ which is designed to reduce the influence of schemas on the accuracy of recall.
Lab-based EWT research may suffer from ______________ were participants pick up the language used and feel social pressure to give an answer that they think will help the researcher (_____________).
Research that deceives participants and causes anxiety breaks ____________.
leading questions implying particular answer / substitution bias / response bias / Loftus + Palmer / 31.8 / 40.8 / broken glass
Factors affecting the Accuracy of Eyewitness Testimony - ______________
(AO1)
This can influence how memory is recalled, either due to an actual change to the memory (___________) or due to emotional pressure to give a particular response (____________).
(AO3) _____________
After watching a clip of a car crash, participants were asked “how fast were the cars going when they (x) into each other?” with the verb (x) wither being smashed, collidied, bumped, hit or contacted.
Findings:
The more extreme the verb, the faster the estimation of speed. eg Contacted = ______mph whereas Smashed = _______mph.
Participants brought back in after a week and those in the smashed group were more likely to perceive there being _____________________.
Suggestions: leading questions influence recall.
Loftus + Palmer
Who suggested that leading questions influence recall?
actual change to the memory
What is substitution bias due to?
emotional pressure to give a particular response
What is response bias due to?
post-event contamination / disillusion / memory conformity
Factors affecting the Accuracy of Eyewitness Testimony - ______________ / ___________ (AO1)
The recall of events by one witness alters the accuracy of another witness’s recollection. This could be ________ ___________ (witnesses going along with others’ accounts for social approval.
post-event contamination / disillusion / 71% / less / violent
Factors affecting the Accuracy of Eyewitness Testimony - ______________ / ___________ (AO3)
Gabbert
Pairs of participants watched different videos of the same crime.
Findings: when the pairs were able to discuss what they had seen, ______ included information that was not in their EWT.
Suggestions: witnesses will change their accounts of crimes to match other witnesses’ testimonies.
Bodner
Found that when participants were warned about the danger of post-event discussion, witnesses changed their EWT _____.
__________ crimes cause high anxiety in eyewitnesses. Lab-based research in EWT that has no emotional impact on the participant can be argued to have low validity when applied to real EWT.
Gabbert / post-event contamination
Who suggested that witnesses will change their accounts of crimes to match other witnesses’ testimonies? Why was this?
Bodner
Who found that when participants were warned about the danger of post-event discussion, witnesses changed their EWT less?
anxiety / weapon effect / memory coding / law of arousal
Factors affecting the Accuracy of Eyewitness Testimony - ______________ (AO1)
A mental state of arousal that includes feelings of extreme concern, tension and physiological changes such as an increased HR.
High anxiety levels may decrease recall due to _____________ with this averting the witnesses’ attention.
High anxiety levels may increase recall as it improves alertness and awereness of the situation and surroundings; additionally, these intense emotions felt could improve ______________.
Yerks-Dodson’s ________________: EWT accuracy increases as anxiety rises as the witness becomes alert. However, at a point, anxiety becomes too high and more stress / distraction results in a lower accuracy.
Yerks-Dodson
Who researched the law of arousal and how this affects the accuracy of EWT?
Johnson + Scott / 49 / 33 / Yuille + Cutshall / 4 months / 13
Factors affecting the Accuracy of Eyewitness Testimony - Anxiety (AO3)
________________
Naive participants overheard (a) normal conversation, a man walks out with greasy hands and a pen or (b) hostile, broken glass and furniture knocked over, a man walks out with a bloody knife.
Findings: _____% identified the man with the pen (a) from 50 photos; _____% identified the man with the knife (b).
Suggestions: Participants were weapon-focused due to anxiety caused by the knife.
________________
Found when interviewed ______________ after witnessing a real-life deadly shooting, _____ witnesses resisted misleading info, and those with the most stress (closest to the shooter) produced the most accurate EWT.
49% / 33%
In Johnson + Scott’s research into how anxiety affects the accuracy of EWT…
what percentage identified the man with the pen?
what percentage identified the man with the knife?
those with the most stress (closest to the shooter)
In Yuille + Cutshaw’s research, which participants produced the most accurate EWT?
standard interview / cognitive interview / context reinstatement / everything / changed perspective / reversed order
Improving the Accuracy of Eyewitness Testimony (AO1)
Innacurate: numerous research studies have shows this due to factors such as anxiety, leading questions and post-event contamination.
Fisher (1987) defined the _____________ from observations of police interviews in florida where quick, direct and closed questions were asked. They led the recall: witnesses couldn’t talk freely and were frequently interrupted.
Fisher + Geiselman (1985) suggested the ______________ as an improvement.
_____________ - mentally returning to the crime scene, this triggers environmental / emotional context cues.
Report ___________ - all details, even if they seem irrelevant, should be mentionned.
Recall from a ________________ - consider the view of other witnesses / perpetrators to disrupt schema.
Recall in a ____________ - switching to a different chronology / timeline to check the accuracy of recall and challenge expectations.
define standard interview
In 1987, what did Fisher do?
Fisher + Geiselman
In 1985, who suggested the cognitive interview as an improvement of EWT?
context reinstatement / report everything / recall from a changed perspective / recall in a changed order
What are the components of the cognitive interview?
cost-benefit analysis / identity paroles / egocentric / modified cognitive interview / Fisher / Koehnken / Milne + Bull / Geiselman
Improving the Accuracy of Eyewitness Testimony (AO3)
The CI is time-consuming and requires significant training & investment, diverting officers from their normal work. The CI may not be adopted due to the limited financial resources.
______________ may argue that the CI is worth the additional resources invested in training to make a more effective police force, with the CI ultimately reducing crime and its cost to broader society.
The CI is not effective in improving recognition of suspects in ______________ and from photos. This means the CI has limited usefulness in several everyday police activities involving EWT.
The CI is not effective with very young children as they are ____________ (only see the world from their perspective). Holliday created a ___________ adapted to children’s developmental level.
What are the 4 supporting researches?
Geiselman / 41.2 / 38.0 / 29.4 / number of errors
Improving the Accuracy of Eyewitness Testimony (AO3) - ______________
Participants viewed a film of a violent crime and, after 48 hours, were interviewed by a policeman using one of three methods: the cognitive interview; a standard interview used by the Los Angeles Police; or an interview using hypnosis. The number of facts accurately recalled and the number of errors made were recorded.
Findings: The average number of correctly recalled facts for the…
cognitive interview was _______
hypnosis it was _______
standard interview it was _______.
There was no significant difference in the _______________ in each condition.
Suggestions: The cognitive interview leads to better memory of events, with witnesses able to recall more relevant information compared with a traditional interview method.
Holliday
Who created a modified cognitive interview adapted to children’s developmental level?
Koehnken / meta-analysis / 85 / 82
Improving the Accuracy of Eyewitness Testimony (AO3) - ______________
A ___________ of 42 CI studies, including over 2500 interviews
Findings: a significant increase in the amount of correct info recalled. However, a significant amount of incorrect information recalled resulted in a similar accuracy rate of ____% CI and ____% SI
Suggestions: CI may be of limited practical use due to increased errors.
Note
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