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electrostatic force
attraction between opposite charges and the strength can vary depending on how far the charges are from each other.
subshell
shape of the space an electron can be found in
ionization energy
the energy an atom must absorb to eject an electron
aufbau principle
electrons must fill up orbitals, subshells, and shells in order of increasing energy.
electromagnetic radiation
electrons can jump to higher energy levels when absorbing this energy
Bohr model
demonstrates the electron organization of an atom
avogadro’s number
number of atoms in a single mole of any given element
anions
have an overall negative charge
cations
have an overall positive charge
electronegativity
how much an element attracts electrons to it’s nucleus
molarity (M)
expresses the concentration of a solution in terms of volume
Coulomb’s law
the closer an electron is to the nucleus, the stronger the attraction and the less potential energy there is
valence electrons
electrons in the outermost shell
photoelectron spectrum
graph of the ionization energies for all electrons when ejected from the nucleus.
electrons
have significantly less mass than protons and neutrons and do not contribute to the mass.
isotopes
atoms of an element with different numbers of neutrons, but same amount of protons.
percent compostition
percent by mass of each element in a compound.
substitutional alloys
a molecule with a similar radius replaces a metal atom
potential energy
stored, motionless energy
kinetic energy
energy in motion
covalent bond
between two nonmetals
metallic bond
between two metals
ionic bond
between a metal and nonmetal
interstitial alloy
an atom with a smaller radii fills the space between metal atoms with larger radii
network covalent bonds
strongest bond, held together in lattice structure
sea of electrons
electron organization for metallic bonds
resonance form
different yet equally likely forms of a molecule’s structure f
formal charge
the most likely version of a lewis dot structure to form
molecular geometry
three-dimensional structure of a molecules arrangement
london dispersion forces (LDFs)
IMF between all molecules, very weak attraction, caused by random electron movements
dipoles
oppositely charged ends of a molcule
effusion
the rate at which a gas will escape a pin-sized hole from high to low pressure
polar covalent bonds
an unequal share of electrons
nonpolar covalent bonds
equally shared electrons
dipole-dipole forces
IMF that occurs when a positive dipole of a molecule is attracted to the negative dipole of another molecule
hydrogen bond
IMF between hydrogen and oxygen, nitrogen, or fluorine
acid
a compound that can donate a proton
base
compound capable of accepting a proton
amphoteric
a compound that can behave as both an acid or a base
catalyst
a substance that speeds up a reaction rate
intermediate
a substance created in one elementary step and used up in another
half-life
how long it takes for half of a substance to decompose
activation energy
energy required for a reaction to start/occur
exothermic
when energy is transferred from system to surroundings (beaker feels hot)
endothermic
heat transfers from surroundings to system (beaker feels cold)
when bonds are formed, energy is ____
releasedw
when bonds are broken, energy is ____
absorbed
ΔH
enthalpy change
enthalpy
total heat content of a system (H)
enthalpy of formation
amount of energy released when one mole of a compound is produced from pure substances
reaction quotient, Q
the relative amount of products and reactants at any point in time
K
equilibrium constant
Le Chatelier’s Principle
when a stress is added to a reaction, the equation will change to adjust for the stress and return to equilibrium
common ion effect
when an element is added to a solution with a salt, the salt equilibrium will change if the element is similar to the salt
equilibrium reaction
reaction is reversible and constantly occurring with no change in concentrations of product or reactants
only ____ stress/change can change the equilibrium constant value
temperature
neutralization reactions
acid and base react, producing water and a salt
strong acid
dissolves completely in water
Kw value
1.0 x 10^-14
buffer solution
can resist pH change when small amounts of strong acid or base added
polyprotic acid
can give up more than one proton
equivalence point
just enough acid/base added to base/acid to neutralize
Gibbs Free Energy
G, determines thermodynamic favorability based on the entropy, enthalpy, and temperature
entropy
S, the disorder of a system, “chaos”
standard conditions
25 celsius, 1 atm, 1M
mass spectrometry
determine the average mass for different isotopes of a specific element
pauli exclusion principle
when two electrons fill up an orbital, they must spin in opposite directions: clockwise and counterclockwise.
hund’s rule
when electrons are filling the orbitals of the subshell, they will only have two in one orbital when it is not possible to have each electron in its own orbital.
noble gas
has all shells completely full of electrons
linear molecular geometry
two electron pairs
trigonal planar geometry
three electron pairs
tetrahedral electron geometry
four electron pairs
trigonal bipyramidal geometry
five electron pairs
octahedral geometry
six electron pairs
kinetic molecular theory
gases are composed of a large number of particles that behave like hard, spherical objects in a state of constant, random motion.
kinetic molecular theory does not work at ____ temperature
low
kinetic molecular theory does not work at ____ pressure
high
absorbance
the amount of light that does not get through (gets absorbed) by a colored solution
gravimetric analysis
used to determine an unknown element in a precipitate reaction
hydrocarbon combustion
carbon + hydrogen (and sometimes oxygen) is ignited and produces CO2 and waters
synthesis reaction
when elements or simple compounds are combined to form a single, more complex compound.
redox reaction
electrons are swapped between reactants and the oxidation states of the reactants are changed.
decomposition reaction
opposite of synthesis- occurs usually in the presence of heat
precipitation reaction
two aqueous solutions mixing to create a solid precipitate.
acid-base reaction
when an acid (H+) reacts with a base (OH)- to form water and a salt.
compounds with these 3 substances are ALWAYS soluble
alkali metals, ammonium, nitrate
any neutral atom not bonded has an oxidation state of ____
zero
a single atom has an oxidation state equal to ____
most common charge
he oxidation state of a compound is equal to the ____
total charge
when hydrogen is bonded to a nonmetal, it has an oxidation state of ____
+1
when hydrogen is bonded to a metal, it has an oxidation state of ____
-1
Arrhenius Constant, k
based on the activation energy for a reaction and the temperature
first order rate law
log[A]=-kt+ln[A]₀
zero order rate law
rate = k
collision theory
reactions only occur when chemicals collide with each other with sufficient energy (activation energy)
second order rate law
1/[A] = kt+ 1/[A]₀
first order half life equation
t= .693/k
heterogenous mixture
not evenly mixed, not all parts are equal
homogeneous mixture
evenly mixed, all parts are equal
elementary step
the steps that occur in a reaction
Note 
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