May 2025 - ALL

feel free to add whatever you feel is necessary
exams 1, 2, 3, and 4 are in here already!

password is "shit" :)

Nerve impulses can occur because the sodium-potassium pump creates a

Resting membrane potential

In the plasma membrane of a neuron, which segment produces only graded potentials?

Receptive

Today my kids asked for ice cream, what type of receptors did they use while eating their sweet treat?

Chemoreceptor

What event stimulated the release of the synaptic vesicle?

Voltage gated Ca+ channels opening to allow Ca+ into the transmissive segment.

What is a graded potential?

Small, localized change in the resting membrane potential

What does the neurotransmitter bind to?

receptor on the postsynaptic membrane

What type of neuron would you find in the retina of the eye?

Bipolar

Sensory/afferent neurons are mostly what type of neuron.

Unipolar

What event must happen before an action potential can be generated?

Threshold must be met.

What glial cell produces cerebral spinal fluid?

Ependymal

What glial cell forms the blood brain barrier?

Astrocyte

What glial cell forms the myelin sheath in the PNS?

Schwann's cell

What glial cell cleans up cellular debris?

Microglia

Place the steps of myelination in order.

_1_ eventually the nucleus and cytoplasm are pushed to the periphery forming and neurolemma.
__2_ the Schwann's cell make contact with the axon.
_3__ the Schwann's cell wraps around the axon.
_4__ consecutive layers of the Schwann's cell encase the axon.

(Key) 2, 3, 4, 1

What Is the function of a Schwann's cell in an unmyelinated axon?

Protect and support.

Which of the following would be an action of the sympathetic nervous system?

Dilating the pupil

You are walking through the woods and see a bear. Your fight of flight kicks in. which division of the autonomic system is activated?

Sympathetic

You reach home safely without being harmed by the bear. You start to calm down. Which division of the autonomic nervous system is activated?

Parasympathetic

Which neurotransmitter is used to stimulate the sarcolemma?

Acetylcholine

What is the function of muscle tissue?

Contraction

The skeletal muscle cell is called a

Muscle fiber

A group of muscle fibers is called a

Fascicle

The plasma membrane of a muscle fiber is called a

Sarcolemma

The endomysium is the layer of dense irregular connective tissue that surrounds the

Muscle fiber

Which connective tissue layer in the muscle contains the blood vessels and nerves

Perimysium

What is this image? (insert image of sarcomere)

Sarcomere

What line separates one sarcomere from another?

Z disc

The line that connects the thick filaments

M line

The area of the sarcomere where there is only thin filaments

I band

When calcium binds to troponin, troponin changes shape removing __________ from the active binding sites of actin

Tropomyosin

For relaxation of muscle to occur

Sarcoplasm calcium levels fall, calcium is removed from troponin, and tropomyosin block binding sites on actin

A power stroke involves

A myosin head pulling a thin filament toward the center of the sarcomere

when myosin breaks down the ATP into ADP and phosphate, it causes the myosin to do what?

Contract actin

At the end of power stroke, if calcium stays bound to troponin

Cross bridging will continue

The muscle fiber type that is used for speed and strength

Fast twitch

The muscle fiber that is used for endurance

Slow twitch

The muscle fiber that is used for aerobic respiration

Slow twitch

In the creatine phosphate pathway, ______ creates an ATP from an ADP and create phosphate molecule

Creatine kinase

What describes the set up of actin and myosin in smooth muscles

Lined along intermediate filaments and anchored I dense plaques

Due to ___________ smooth muscle is fatigue resistant

Latch bridging

Which of the following causes skeletal muscle to fatigue out
a. Running out of atp
b. Neuron running out of Ach
c. An increase in phosphate
d. All the above
e. None of the above

all the above

How would calcium play a role in skeletal muscle fatigue

There will be calcium crystals in the SER and none for contraction... i think

structural unit of compact bone

osteon

shaft of a long bone is called

diaphysis

___ ossification forms flat bones where ___ ossification forms long bones

intramembranous, endochondral

in resorption, which cell types release digestive enzymes

osteoclast

what produces the osteoid

osteoblasts

what maintains bone matrix

osteocyte

what breaks down bone matrix

osteoclasts

hormone that increases activity of osteoclast, which increases concentration of calcium in the blood is what

parathyroid

rings of osteoid that encircle the central canal is

lamella

which structure of plasma provides colloid osmostic pressure

proteins

what is the porphrin ring with an iron in the middle

heme

a person with O- blood needs a blood transfusion, what type of blood can they receive

O-

an erythrocyte lives about ___ days

120

a person with type B+ blood needs a blood transfusion, what type of blood can they receive

B+, B-, O+, O-

after the threshold is met in nodal cells, which channels open

voltage gated Ca

why does the AV node hold onto action potential for a brief second before going into the ventricles

to make sure ventricles are relaxed to fill with blood

which structure delivers the action potential to the cardiac muscle in ventricle walls

perjunke fibers

which receptor does epinephrine bind to cause vasodilation

beta 2

what effect does norepinephrine have on cardiac tissue

Norepinephrine starts a cascade of opening Ca+ channels in the nodal cells of the SA and AV nodes which leads to an increasing HR and strength of contraction

which affect resistance of blood flow

blood viscosity, vessel radius, vessel length

what increases the sensitivity of nodal cells to NEP and EP

thyroid hormone

in a person with high blood pressure, what can be changed to decrease it

decrease drinking and increase urine output

pulmonary ventilation stage of respiration is dependent on

pressure differences between atmospheric pressure and pressure inside the lungs

what direction do the ribs move with inspiration

up and out

what direction does the diaphragm move during exhalation

up

what is the space for conducting air flow called

anatomical dead space

in the alveoli gas exchange, O2 is higher in

alveoli

in the alveoli gas exchange, CO2 drives the movement of gas from ___ to ___

blood vessel to alveoli

what does cooperative binding effect mean

if an oxygen molecule binds to hemoglobin, it makes it easier for other oxygens to bind

what is the main way carbon dioxide is transported in the blood

as a bicarbonate dissolved in plasma

in the systematic gas exchange, the partial pressure for CO2 drives the flow of CO2 in which direction

into the capillary

in the systematic gas exchange, the partial pressure for O2 drives the flow of O2 in which direction

into the tissue

peripheral chemoreceptors monitor ___ in the blood

Hydrogen, carbon dioxide, and oxygen levels

where is the depth of breathing controlled

anterior medulla

what is the average rate of breaths per minute in a person with eupnea

12-15

What is bradypnea?

too slow of breathing

what can cause hypoventilation

airway obstruction, pneumonia, brainstem injury

which type of leukocyte contains a multi-lobed nucleus with neutral or pale granules

neutrophils

the ability of bronchioles to regulate airflow and arterioles to regulate blood flow within the lungs is called

profusion coupling (form of ventilation)

what is tidal volume

the amount of air in 1 breath

which measurement is used to measure compliance

inspiratory reserve volume

zone of epiphyseal plate:
area where chondrocytes quit dividing and begin to enlarge

zone of hypertrophic cartilage

zone of epiphyseal plate:
secures the epiphysis to the epiphyseal plate, looks like normal hyaline cartilage

zone of resting cartilage

zone of epiphyseal plate:
minerals are deposited in the matrix, appears opaque

zone of calcified cartilage

zone of epiphyseal plate:
chondrocytes undergo rapid mitotic division

zone of proliferating cartilage

zone of epiphyseal plate:
walls break down between lacunae, and osteoprogenitor cells from the medullary cavity migrate in and become osteocytes

zone of ossification

two ways a fracture occurs

abnormal stress on normal bone, normal stress on abnormal bone

breaking the ingested food into physically smaller pieces id called

mechanical digestion

food must first be broken down into its ___ before it is absorbed

monomer

how are nucleic acids absorbed into the epithelial cells that line the small intestine

The broken down parts are absorbed into the endothelial cells by carrier proteins

what does salivary amylase break down

carbohydrates

the process of creating smaller "bubbles" of lipid is known as

emulsification

how does the digestive system move ingested material

peristalsis

how is the micelle moved into the endothelial cell

endocytosis

the breaking down of ingested materials into their monomers is

chemical digestion

what are the stages of digestion

ingestion, digestion, absorption, compaction, elimination

what is the pH needed for salivary amylase to work

6.8-7