Key Terms for EBQ in AP Psychology (2024 CED)

Hindsight Bias

The tendency to believe, after an outcome is known, that one would have predicted or expected it beforehand; also known as the 'I-knew-it-all-along' phenomenon.

Sampling Bias

A systematic error in sampling that occurs when some members of a population have a higher or lower probability of being included in the study sample than others, leading to a non-representative sample.

Institutional Review Boards (IRB)

Committees that review proposed research to ensure it meets ethical standards, protects participants' rights and welfare, and complies with federal regulations.

Reliability

The consistency or stability of test scores when the measurement is repeated on a population or when alternative versions are used.

Validity

The extent to which a test measures what it claims to measure and performs the functions it is intended to perform.

Ethics

Professional standards of conduct and moral principles that guide research and practice in psychology, including principles like beneficence, nonmaleficence, justice, respect for rights and dignity, and integrity.

Consent

The process of obtaining voluntary agreement from research participants after they have been fully informed about the nature of the research, potential risks and benefits, and their right to withdraw at any time.

Debriefing

The process after an experiment when researchers explain the true purpose, methods, and findings of the study to participants, especially when deception was used.

Independent Variable (IV)

The factor that is manipulated or changed by the researcher; the presumed cause.

Dependent Variable (DV)

The factor that is measured by the researcher; the presumed effect that depends on the independent variable.

Double Blind

A research procedure in which neither the participants nor the researchers know which participants are in the experimental or control groups, reducing experimenter bias and placebo effects.

Placebo Effect

A change in a participant's illness, symptoms, or behavior that results from the expectation that they are receiving a treatment rather than from the treatment itself.

Experimental

Research method in which an independent variable is manipulated and its effect on a dependent variable is measured while controlling for other variables, allowing researchers to determine cause-and-effect relationships.

Hippocampus

A seahorse-shaped structure in the limbic system of the brain that plays a crucial role in the formation of new memories, spatial navigation, and connecting emotions to memories.

Dopamine

A neurotransmitter associated with reward, motivation, motor control, and pleasure.

Serotonin

A neurotransmitter that regulates mood, appetite, sleep, and social behavior; often called the 'feel-good' neurotransmitter.

Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers that transmit signals across a synapse from one neuron to another.

Neurons

Specialized cells in the nervous system that process and transmit information through electrical and chemical signals.

Central Nervous System

The part of the nervous system consisting of the brain and spinal cord, which integrates information and coordinates activity across the entire body.

Plasticity

The brain's ability to change and reorganize itself by forming new neural connections throughout life in response to learning, experience, or following injury.

Hormones

Chemical substances produced by endocrine glands that travel through the bloodstream to target organs, where they regulate physiological and behavioral activities.

Endorphins

Naturally produced chemicals in the body that function as neurotransmitters and reduce the perception of pain while triggering positive feelings, sometimes called natural pain killers.

EEG (Electroencephalogram)

A technique that records electrical activity of the brain using electrodes placed on the scalp.

fMRI (Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging)

A neuroimaging technique that measures brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow, which correlates with neural activity.

Frontal Lobe

The largest lobe of the brain's cerebral cortex, located at the front of the brain, responsible for higher cognitive functions including decision-making, problem-solving, planning, executive function, and personality.

Sleep

A naturally recurring state characterized by reduced consciousness, relatively suspended sensory activity, and inhibition of voluntary muscles, typically occurring in cycles of REM and NREM stages.

Circadian Rhythm

The internal 24-hour biological clock that regulates the sleep-wake cycle and other physiological processes.

Consciousness

Awareness of external stimuli and internal mental events, such as thoughts and feelings.

Transduction

The process by which sensory receptors convert physical energy from the environment (light, sound, etc.) into neural signals the brain can interpret.

Retina

The light-sensitive layer of tissue at the back of the eye that contains rods and cones, which convert light into neural signals sent to the brain for visual processing.

Semicircular Canals

Three fluid-filled loops in the inner ear that help maintain balance and equilibrium by detecting rotational movements.

Cochlea

A spiral-shaped structure in the inner ear that contains the organ of Corti, which transforms sound vibrations into nerve impulses sent to the brain.

Kinesthesis

The awareness of the position and movement of body parts, mediated by receptors in muscles, tendons, and joints.

Vestibular Sense

The sense that contributes to balance, spatial orientation, and eye movements based on the position of the head, detected by structures in the inner ear.

Twin Studies

Research comparing the similarity of twins on certain traits to determine the relative influence of genetics and environment, often comparing identical twins (who share 100% of their genes) with fraternal twins (who share about 50%).

Long-term Potentiation

The strengthening of neural connections as a result of frequent stimulation, believed to be the cellular basis for learning and memory.

Encoding

The process of converting sensory information into a form that can be processed and stored in memory.

Chunking

A memory technique that involves grouping individual pieces of information into larger, meaningful units to make them easier to remember.

Retrieval

The process of accessing stored information and bringing it into conscious awareness.

Top-down Processing

Information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, such as expectations, prior knowledge, and context.

Bottom-up Processing

Information processing that begins with sensory input and builds toward higher-level understanding and meaning.

Schema

A mental framework or concept that organizes and interprets information; a cognitive structure that helps us understand and interpret new information based on existing knowledge.

Heuristics

Mental shortcuts or simple rules of thumb that allow people to make judgments and solve problems quickly and efficiently, though sometimes at the cost of accuracy.

Growth Mindset

The belief that abilities and intelligence can be developed through dedication, hard work, and learning from failures (as opposed to fixed mindset).

Meta-cognition

Awareness and understanding of one's own thought processes; thinking about thinking.

Intelligence

The ability to acquire and apply knowledge and skills, solve problems, and adapt to new situations.

IQ (Intelligence Quotient)

A score derived from standardized tests designed to assess human intelligence.

Alzheimer's

A progressive neurodegenerative disease characterized by memory loss, cognitive decline, and behavioral changes, associated with the formation of amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles in the brain.

Nature-Nurture

The ongoing debate about the relative contributions of genetics (nature) and environment (nurture) to human development and behavior.

Teratogens

Environmental agents such as drugs, chemicals, or diseases that can cause birth defects or developmental abnormalities in a developing embryo or fetus.

Cross-sectional Study

Research that compares different age groups at the same point in time.

Longitudinal Study

Research that follows the same individuals over an extended period of time.

Cognitive Development (4 stages)

Piaget's theory of cognitive development consisting of four stages: Sensorimotor (birth-2 years), Preoperational (2-7 years), Concrete Operational (7-11 years), and Formal Operational (11+ years).

Sensorimotor

Learning through sensory experiences and motor actions; developing object permanence.

Preoperational

Developing language and symbolic thinking; characterized by egocentrism.

Concrete Operational

Developing logical thinking about concrete events; understanding conservation.

Formal Operational

Developing abstract reasoning and hypothetical thinking.

Language

A complex system of communication involving symbols, grammar, and meaning that enables humans to express thoughts and feelings.

Classical Conditioning

A learning process in which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a naturally occurring stimulus to elicit a similar response.

Operant Conditioning

A learning process in which behavior is modified by its consequences, either reinforcement or punishment.

Parenting Styles

Different approaches to child-rearing, typically categorized as Authoritative, Authoritarian, Permissive, and Uninvolved.

Authoritative

High demands with high responsiveness.

Authoritarian

High demands with low responsiveness.

Permissive

Low demands with high responsiveness.

Uninvolved

Low demands with low responsiveness.

Temperament

Inborn behavioral tendencies that appear early in life and remain relatively stable over time, influencing how individuals respond to their environment.

Dementia

A general term for a decline in mental ability severe enough to interfere with daily life, caused by damage to brain cells that affects memory, thinking, behavior, and feelings.

Social Learning Theory/Models

A theory proposed by Albert Bandura suggesting that people learn by observing others' behavior, attitudes, and outcomes, with models being the individuals being observed.

Locus of Control

A psychological concept referring to the extent to which individuals believe they have control over events in their lives.

Internal locus

Belief that one's behavior and actions determine outcomes.

External locus

Belief that external factors like luck or fate determine outcomes.

Social Loafing

The tendency for individuals to exert less effort when working in a group than when working alone.

Attribution

The process by which individuals explain the causes of behavior and events.

Internal (dispositional) attribution

Explaining behavior based on personal characteristics.

External (situational) attribution

Explaining behavior based on environmental factors.

Norms

Unwritten rules about how to behave in a particular social group or culture.

Conformity

The tendency to adjust one's behavior or thinking to match that of a group or social standard.

Social Trap

A situation in which individuals or groups pursue immediate self-interest that collectively leads to long-term negative consequences for themselves and others.

Intrinsic Motivation

Engaging in behavior because it is personally rewarding or inherently satisfying.

Extrinsic Motivation

Engaging in behavior to earn external rewards or avoid punishments.

Arousal

A physiological and psychological state of being alert, awake, and attentive, which can affect performance according to the Yerkes-Dodson law.

Self-efficacy

Belief in one's ability to succeed in specific situations or accomplish specific tasks.

Self-esteem

Overall subjective evaluation of one's own worth or value.

Self

The organized, coherent set of perceptions and beliefs about oneself.

Self-actualizing Tendency

In humanistic psychology, the innate drive to grow, develop one's potential, and become one's best self, as described by Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers.

Emotion

A complex psychological state involving subjective experience, physiological response, and behavioral or expressive response.

Emotional Stability

A personality trait reflecting the tendency to remain emotionally balanced and adapt to stressful situations without excessive anxiety, irritability, or other negative emotions.

DSM

The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, published by the American Psychiatric Association, which provides standardized criteria for the classification and diagnosis of mental disorders.

Positive Psychology

The scientific study of the strengths and virtues that enable individuals and communities to thrive, focusing on positive emotions, engagement, relationships, meaning, and accomplishment.

Stress

The physiological and psychological response to demands (stressors) that tax or exceed an individual's resources or ability to cope.

General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)

Hans Selye's three-stage model of the body's response to stress: Alarm (Initial fight-or-flight response), Resistance (Period of adaptation and coping), Exhaustion (Depletion of resources if stress continues).

Resilience

The ability to adapt well to adversity, trauma, tragedy, threats, or significant sources of stress and bounce back from difficult experiences.

Stigma

Negative attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors directed toward individuals with mental health disorders, often leading to discrimination and barriers to treatment.

What does Dysfunction refer to in psychological disorders?

Impairment in cognitive, emotional, or behavioral functioning.

What does Distress refer to in psychological disorders?

Significant emotional suffering or pain.

What does Deviance refer to in psychological disorders?

Behavior that violates social norms.

What are the 3 Ds used to determine psychological disorders?

Dysfunction, Distress, Deviance.

Depression (MDD)

A mood disorder characterized by persistent feelings of sadness, loss of interest, and other symptoms that significantly impair daily functioning.

Anxiety

A state of excessive fear, worry, or unease, often in anticipation of future threat or danger.

Disorders

Mental health conditions characterized by alterations in thinking, mood, or behavior associated with distress and/or impaired functioning, which are categorized in the DSM.