atoms, ions, & chemical bonds

water

- major constituent of the body

-accounts for 65% to 75% of the total weight of an average adult

- two-third is contained within the body cells, or in the intracellular compartment

- remainder is contained in the extracellular compartment (blood and tissue fluids)

what is dissolved in water

Organic molecules: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids

Inorganic molecules and ions: atoms

What is an atom?

The smallest particle still characterizing a chemical element.

Can an atom be cut into smaller particles?

No, an atom cannot be cut into smaller particles.

What are the subatomic particles that make up an atom?

Electrons, protons, and neutrons.

What charge do electrons have?

Electrons have a negative charge.

How does the mass of a proton compare to that of an electron?

A proton is about 1836 times more massive than an electron.

What charge do protons have?

Protons have a positive charge.

What charge do neutrons have?

Neutrons have no charge.

What are protons and neutrons collectively called?

Nucleons.

Where are protons and neutrons located in an atom?

In the dense, massive atomic nucleus.

What forms the electron cloud surrounding the nucleus?

Electrons.

what is atomic mass

sum of the proton and neutrons in an atom is equal to the atomicmass of the atom

what is the atomic number

number of protons in an atom is given as its atomic number

EX: Carbon has six protons and thus has an atomic number of 6

What do isotopes of an element have in common?

They have the same number of protons (the same atomic number).

What is different about isotopes of an element?

They have different numbers of neutrons.

What do isotopes have that is different due to varying neutrons?

They have different mass numbers.

What is the total number of nucleons in an isotope?

The total number of nucleons is the sum of protons and neutrons.

What are chemical compounds formed by?

The joining of two or more atoms.

What is a covalent bond?

A bond in which one or more pairs of electrons are shared by two atoms.

What is an ionic bond?

A bond in which one or more electrons from one atom are removed and attached to another atom, resulting in positive and negative ions that attract each other.

What is another type of bond besides covalent and ionic bonds?

Hydrogen bonding.

What are acids?

Acids are ionic compounds that break apart in water to form a hydrogen ion (H+).

How is the strength of an acid determined?

The strength of an acid is based on the concentration of H+ ions in the solution; more H+ means a stronger acid.

What is an example of a strong acid?

HCl (Hydrochloric acid) in water.

What is a characteristic taste of acids?

Acids taste sour.

How do acids react with metals?

Acids react strongly with metals, such as Zn + HCl.

What can strong acids do to skin?

Strong acids are dangerous and can burn your skin.

what are examples of acids

- vinegar

- hydrochloric acid (HCI)

- citrus fruits

What are bases?

Bases are ionic compounds that break apart to form a negatively charged hydroxide ion (OH-) in water.

How is the strength of a base determined?

The strength of a base is determined by the concentration of hydroxide ions (OH-).

What happens to the strength of a base as the concentration of OH- ions increases?

The greater the concentration of OH- ions, the stronger the base.

What is an example of a strong base?

Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH) is an example of a strong base.

What are solutions containing bases often called?

Solutions containing bases are often called alkaline.

What is a characteristic taste of bases?

Bases taste bitter.

How do bases feel to the touch?

Bases feel slippery.

Why are strong bases dangerous?

Strong bases are very dangerous and can burn your skin.

What is an example of a common base besides sodium hydroxide?

Ammonia is another example of a common base.

What occurs during a neutralization reaction?

When acids and bases are added to each other, they react to neutralize each other if an equal number of hydrogen and hydroxide ions are present.

What are the products of a neutralization reaction?

Salt and water are formed during a neutralization reaction.

What is the chemical equation for the neutralization of hydrochloric acid with sodium hydroxide?

HCl + NaOH = NaCl + H2O.

What is the pH scale?

The pH scale measures the strength of an acid or base in a solution.

What does the pH scale measure?

The pH scale measures the hydrogen ion concentration.

What is the range of the pH scale?

The pH scale spans from 0 to 14.

What pH value is considered neutral?

pH 7 is considered neutral.

What pH values indicate a base?

Any pH number greater than 7 is considered a base.

What pH values indicate an acid?

Any pH number less than 7 is considered an acid.

What is the strongest acid on the pH scale?

0 is the strongest acid.

What is the strongest base on the pH scale?

14 is the strongest base.

What is a buffer?

A buffer is a system of molecules and ions that prevents changes in hydrogen ion concentration.

How does a buffer stabilize pH?

A buffer stabilizes pH by preventing changes in hydrogen ion concentration.

What is the normal arterial pH in blood?

The normal arterial pH in blood is approximately 7.40 ± 0.05.

What organic acids are produced by the body's cells?

Lactic acid and other organic acids are produced by the cells of the body.

what is an example of buffers in blood plasma

the pH is stabilized by the following reversible reaction involving the bicarbonate ion (HCO3) and carbonic acid (H2CO3)

What is the major source of energy for the body?

Carbohydrates

What elements are carbohydrates primarily composed of?

Carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and oxygen (O)

How much energy do carbohydrates provide per gram?

4 kilocalories (kcal) per gram

What is the best known simple sugar?

Sucrose

What are monosaccharides?

The smallest carbohydrates, made up of one sugar molecule

What are disaccharides?

Carbohydrates made up of two sugar molecules

What are examples of monosaccharides?

Glucose and fructose

What are examples of disaccharides?

Sucrose, lactose, and maltose

What are polysaccharides?

Larger carbohydrates made up of many sugar molecules

What are complex carbohydrates?

Another term for polysaccharides

What is the primary source of sugar for the body?

Carbohydrates

Name three types of sugars that provide energy for the body.

Glucose, sucrose, fructose

What is usually required to break down sugars for the body to use them?

Enzymes

What can happen if the enzymes needed to break down sugars are not present?

Sugars can build up and cause problems.

What determines the type of problem caused by sugar buildup in the body?

The type of sugar involved

What is galactosemia?

Galactosemia is an inherited autosomal recessive trait that affects the way the sugar galactose is broken down.

What enzyme is lacking in galactosemia?

The enzyme lacking in galactosemia is galactose-1-phosphate uridyl transferase.

How is galactose produced in the body?

Galactose can be found on its own in food or is produced when lactose (milk sugar) is broken down into galactose and glucose.

What happens to galactose in the body during galactosemia?

In galactosemia, galactose builds up and becomes toxic.

What are some clinical signs and symptoms of galactosemia?

Symptoms include swollen and inflamed liver, kidney failure, ovarian failure in girls, mental growth issues, and cataracts in the eyes.

What is the treatment for galactosemia?

The treatment for galactosemia is to restrict galactose and lactose from the diet for life.

What is one function of proteins related to binding and transport?

Proteins like hemoglobin transport oxygen to tissues.

what are many drug molecules partially bounded to

serum albumins in the plasma

What role do proteins play in molecular switching?

Proteins undergo conformational changes in response to pH or ligand binding to control cellular processes.

How do proteins contribute to coordinated motion in muscles?

Muscle contraction is mediated by the sliding motion of protein filaments actin and myosin.

What structural role do proteins play in the body?

Proteins like collagen provide structural support to skin and bone.

How do proteins function in immune protection?

Antibodies are protein structures that react with specific foreign substances in the body.

What is the role of proteins in nerve impulse transmission?

Some amino acids act as neurotransmitters, and receptors for neurotransmitters are proteins.

what is an example of generation of transmission of nerve impulses

acetylcholine receptor, which is a proteinstructure that is embedded in postsynaptic neurons

How do proteins control growth and differentiation?

Proteins like hormones and growth factors regulate cell function, growth, and DNA expression.

what are examples of control of growth & differentiation

many hormones and growth factors that regulate cell function, such as insulin or thyroid stimulating hormone are proteins

What condition occurs due to inadequate protein and caloric intake?

Marasmus, characterized by stoppage of growth, extreme muscle loss, and weakness.

What is marasmus?

Marasmus is a form of severe protein-energy malnutrition characterized by energy deficiency (cachexia)

What are common clinical signs of marasmus?

Common signs include dry skin, loose skin folds, and drastic loss of adipose tissue.

What psychological symptoms are associated with marasmus?

Individuals with marasmus are often fretful, irritable, and voraciously hungry.

What is flag sign in relation to marasmus?

Flag sign refers to alternate bands of pigmented and depigmented hair seen in marasmus.

What skin appearance is associated with marasmus?

The skin may have a flaky paint appearance due to peeling.

What is a characteristic of metabolic disturbances regarding water retention?

Little or no water retention is present.

What may occur if diarrhea persists in metabolic disturbances?

Potassium and sodium depletion may occur.

What happens to serum protein levels in metabolic disturbances?

Serum protein levels are diminished.

What happens to the liver during general wasting in metabolic disturbances?

The liver suffers acute and severe protein depletion and loss of its amino acid pool.

What is the first step in treating metabolic disturbances?

Correct the electrolyte imbalance.

What follows the correction of electrolyte imbalance in the treatment of metabolic disturbances?

A gradual feeding program.

signs/symptoms of miramus

pigment cell disorder (dry skin) (melanocytes), muscles atrophied, weakened immune system, deficiency of hormones & electrolytes

treatment for miramus

treat electrolytes first through potassium, protein & calcium diet

lipids

- fats & oils

- high energy

- carbon, hydrogen, oxygen (lower oxygen than carbs)

- lower amount of O2 makes insoluble in water & soluble in certain organic molecules