ALL UNITS 1-5, Ap Psych Vocab

memory

persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information

recall

a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test.

recognition

a measure of memory in which the person identifies items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test.

relearning

a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material again.

encoding

the process of getting information into the memory system — for example, by extracting meaning.

storage

the process of retaining encoded information over time.

retrieval

the process of getting information out of memory storage

parallel processing

processing many aspects of a problem simultaneously;the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions.

sensory memory

the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system.

short term memory

activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as digits of a phone number while calling, before the information is stored or forgotten.

long term memory

the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.

working memory

a newer understanding of short-term memory that adds conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory.

explicit memory

retention of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare." (Also called declarative memory)

effortful processing

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort.

automatic processing

unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings.

implicit memory

retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection

echoic memory

a momentary sensory memory of AUDITORY stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3-4 seconds

iconic memory

a momentary sensory memory of VISUAL stimuli; a picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second

mnemonics

memory aids that use vivid imagery and organizational devices

chunking

organizing items into familiar, manageable units, often occurs automatically.

spacing effect

tendency for distributed study/practice to yield better long term retention than is achieved through massed study.

testing effect

enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading information.

shallow processing

encoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words

deep processing

encoding semantically based on the meaning of the words, yields the best results

semantic memory

explicit memory of facts and general knowledge

episodic memory

explicit memory of personally experienced events

hippocampus

neural center in the limbic system that processes explicit memories of facts and events

memory consolidation

neural storage of long term memories.

flashbulb memory

clear, sustained memory of an emotionally significant moment or event

long term potentiation

increase in a cell’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation; neural basis for learning and memory

priming

activation (unconsciously) of certain association, predisposing one’s perception/memory/response

encoding specificity principle

idea that cues and contexts specific to a paticular memory will be most effective in helping us recall it

mood congruent memory

tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current good/bad mood

serial positioning effect

tendency to recall the last (recency effect) and the first (primacy effect) items in a list

anterograde amnesia

the inability to form new memories

retrograde amnesia

the inability to recall past memories

proactive interference

forward-acting disruptive effect of older learning on the recall of NEW information

retroactive interference

backward acting disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of OLD information

repress

in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories

cognition

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

concepts

a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people

prototypes

a mental image/best example of a category. Matching new items to prototypes provides a quick way to sort items into categories.

creativity

the ability to produce new and valuable ideas

convergent thinking

narrowing the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution

divergent thinking

expanding the number of possible problem solutions; creative thinking that diverges in different directions

algorithms

methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem. Contrasts with the usually speedier but less accurate heuristics

heuristics

simple thinking strategy that allows us to make judgements and solve problems efficiently; speedier, but more prone to error compared to algorithms

insight

a sudden realization of a problem’s solution; contrasts with strategy based solutions

confirmation bias

the tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptuons and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence

fixation

an inability to see a problem from a fresh perspective, often hindering problem-solving.

mental set

tendency to approach a problem in one specific way that has been successful in the past

intuition

effortless, immediate automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning

representative heuristic

estimating the likelihood of events in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match particular prototypes; that may lead us to ignore other relevant info

availability heuristic

estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common

language

our spoken, written or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning

Phonemes

smallest distinctive sound unit

Morphemes

smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a part of a word or a word

aphasia

impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage to either Broca’s (speaking language) or Wenicke’s area (understanding language)

grammar

a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others. Semantics is the language's set of rules for deriving meaning from sounds, and syntax is its set of rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences.

babbling stage

beginning around 4 months, the stage of speech development in which an infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language

one word stage

stage in speech development (1-2) where a child speaks in mostly single words

linguistic determinism

STRONG form of Whorf’s hypothesis- language controls the way we interpret the world around us

linguistic influence

WEAKER form of Whorf’s hypothesis- language AFFECTS thought, thus our thinking and world view is “relative to” our cultural language

Constructive memory

what we don’t remember, we make-up using logic and context clues

Reconsolidation

memory details are lost with time, but can be remembered with help (unconditioned stimuli, conditioned stimuli)

Imagination Inflation

a type of memory distortion that occurs when imagining an event that never happened increases confidence in the memory of the event

misinformation effect

a phenomenon that occurs when misleading information has distorted one’s memory of an event.

source amnesia

impaired memory for how, where, or when information was learned despite good memory for the information itself.

general intelligence

G

Standardization

defining uniform testing
procedures and meaningful scores by
comparison with the performance of a
pretested group

Test-Retest Reliability

Using the same test on two occasions to measure consistency.

Split-Half Reliability

Dividing the test into two parts, testing each part on the same
students but on different days, and comparing scores.

Construct Validity

the ability of a measurement tool (survey, test, etc.) to measure the
concept being studied.

Predictive Validity

the success with which a test predicts the behavior it is designed to
predict; assessed by computing correlation between test scores and the criterion
behavior

Stereotype threat

a self-confirming concern
that one will be evaluated based on a negative
stereotype

The Flynn Effect

refers to the finding that the average
human IQ has increased over time

Achievement tests

measure mastery of
knowledge, assessing what someone has
learned.

Aptitude tests

designed to predict a person’s future performance or capacity
to learn.

growth mindset

you believe your intelligence and talents can
be developed over time.

fixed mindset

you believe intelligence is fixed

central nervous system (CNS)

Division of the nervous system that consists of the brain and spinal cord

peripheral nervous system (PNS)

the sensory and motor neurons that connect the CNS to the rest of the body

somatic nervous system

division of the peripheral nervous system that control's the body's skeletal muscles.

neuron

a nerve cell; basic cell of the nervous system

sensory (afferent) neurons

neurons that carry information from the receptors to the spinal cord and brain

motor (efferent) neurons

neurons that carry information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles

autonomic nervous system (ANS)

division of the peripheral nervous system involved in the control of (generally unconscious/automatic) bodily functioning through organs and glands; its sympathetic division arouses while the parasympathetic division calms

sympathetic nervous system

subdivision of the autonomic nervous system responsible for mobilizing the body in times of stress, and preparing for flight or fight

parasympathetic nervous system

subdivision of the autonomic nervous system responsible for calming the body

reflex

automatic behavior in response to a specific stimulus; does not involve communication with the brain

brainstem

the oldest part and central core of the brain; responsible for automatic survival functions and composed of medulla, pons, and reticular formation.

medulla

base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat & breathing

reticular formation

band of nerve fibers that run through the center of the brain stem; important in controlling arousal levels

cerebellum

structure of the hindbrain that coordinates voluntary muscular movements

corpus callosum

wide band of neural fibers that connects the two hemispheres of the brain

limbic system

a group of structures located beneath the cerebral cortex that are involved in regulating emotions and motivated behaviors

thalamus

subcortical structure that relays incoming sensory information to the cerebral cortex and other parts of the brain; a.k.a "sensory switchboard"

electroenchephalogram (EEG)

device that monitors and records waves of electric activity within the brain; measured by electrodes placed on the scalp

positron emission tomography (PET scan)

visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task

computed tomography (CT scan)

imaging technique that involves the production of a large number of X-rays interpreted by a computer