martin luther

What was the Protestant Reformation?

A religious movement in 16th-century Europe challenging the authority of the Catholic Church

Who was Martin Luther and why is he important?

German monk who wrote the 95 Theses criticizing church corruption, especially the sale of indulgences

What are indulgences?

Payments to the Church that promised forgiveness of sins

What were key beliefs of Protestantism?

Salvation by faith alone, authority of the Bible over the Church, priesthood of all believers

What were major results of the Reformation?

Religious fragmentation of Europe, rise of Protestant churches, weakening of Papal authority, religious wars (e.g., Thirty Years’ War)

How did the Catholic Church respond to the Reformation?

Counter-Reformation (Council of Trent, Jesuits) to reform the Church and combat Protestantism

What is absolutism?

Political system where a monarch holds total power, claiming divine right to rule

What is the “divine right of kings”?

Belief that monarchs are chosen by God and answerable only to God

Name a famous absolute monarch in France.

Louis XIV (“Sun King”), centralized power, built Versailles

How did absolutist monarchs maintain control?

Bureaucracy, standing armies, taxation, control of nobility, propaganda

How did absolutism affect Europe’s political development?

Strengthened central governments, reduced feudal power, but led to tensions that sometimes caused revolts or civil wars