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Learning
The process of acquiring new knowledge or behavior through experiences.
Associative Learning
Learning that involves making associations between stimuli or behaviors and stimuli.
Habituation
The process of becoming accustomed to a stimulus and paying less attention to it over time.
Stimulus
An event or occurrence that leads to a response.
Classical Conditioning
A learning process that creates associations between neutral and unconditioned stimuli to elicit a conditioned response.
Operant Conditioning
Learning where behavior is controlled by consequences like rewards and punishments.
Observational Learning
Learning by watching others and imitating their behavior.
Ivan Pavlov
A Russian physiologist known for his work in classical conditioning.
Response
A reaction to a stimulus.
Neutral Stimulus (NS)
A stimulus that initially does not elicit any intrinsic response.
Continuous Reinforcement
Reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs, providing a reward each time you do something right.
Partial Reinforcement
Reinforcing the desired response only some of the time, giving rewards occasionally, not every time.
Acquisition and Extinction with Continuous Reinforcement
Behaviors are learned and forgotten more quickly with continuous reinforcement compared to partial reinforcement.
Fixed Ratio
Reinforcing a response only after a specified number of responses, like getting a reward for every 10 books read.
Variable Ratio
Reinforcing a response after an unpredictable number of responses, like winning a game randomly.
Fixed Interval
Reinforcing a response only after a specified amount of time has elapsed, such as getting paid weekly.
Variable Interval
Reinforcing a response at unpredictable time intervals, like surprise quizzes.
Punishment
A consequence that decreases the likelihood of a behavior being repeated, like a timeout.
Positive Punishment
Adding an aversive stimulus to decrease a behavior, such as giving extra chores.
Negative Punishment
Taking away a desirable stimulus to decrease a behavior, like no TV for a week.
Bandura’s Bobo Doll Study
Children imitating aggressive behavior observed in adults towards a Bobo doll, showing learning through observation.
Observational Learning
Learning by watching others and imitating their behavior.
Latent Learning
Learning that occurs but is not immediately demonstrated until there is an incentive to do so.
Cognitive Maps
Mental representations of physical locations aiding in navigation.
Insight
Sudden realization of a problem's solution without trial-and-error learning.
Retrieval Cues
Hints that aid in remembering information stored in memory.
Serial Position Curve
Demonstrates better recall of items at the beginning and end of a list.
Primacy Effect
Tendency to remember the first items in a list.
Recency Effect
Tendency to remember the last items in a list.
Network Models of Memory
Propose memories are stored in interconnected networks.
Spreading Activation
Process where one memory triggers related memories.
Priming
Activation of associations that influence perception and response.
Effortful Processing
Requires conscious effort to encode information.
Automatic Processing
Involves unconscious encoding of incidental information.
Mnemonics
Memory aids using vivid imagery and organizational devices.
Acronyms
Abbreviations formed from initial letters of words.
First Letter Technique
Uses first letters of items to create a word or phrase.
Imagery
Creating vivid mental pictures to aid memory.
Method of Loci
Associating items with specific locations to aid memory.
Peg Word
Associating items with pre-memorized words.
Hierarchical Structures
Organizing information into categories and subcategories.
Elaborative Rehearsal
Linking new information to existing knowledge.
Distributed Practice
Studying over time for better retention.
Testing Effect
Taking tests improves learning and memory retention.
Encoding Specificity Principle
Memory is most effective when retrieval cues match encoding context.
Context Dependent Memory
Improved recall when encoding and retrieval contexts match.
State-Dependent Memory
Improved recall when in the same state of consciousness as encoding.
Mood Congruent Memory
Tendency to recall experiences consistent with current mood.
Relearning
Process of learning previously forgotten information.
Forgetting Curve
Shows how information is lost over time without retention efforts.
Encoding Failure
Information not stored in long-term memory.
Storage Failure
Memories decay over time.
Memory Decay
Fading of memories over time due to lack of use.
Tip of the Tongue Phenomenon
Inability to recall a word despite feeling imminent retrieval.
Lost the Cues for Retrieval
Retrieval failure due to missing cues.
Infantile Amnesia
Inability to recall early childhood memories.
Retrieval Failure
Inability to access stored information.
Interference
Competition between information affecting recall.
Retroactive Interference
New information interferes with old information recall.
Proactive Interference
Old information interferes with new information recall.
Malleability of Memory
Memory's susceptibility to influence and alteration.
Misinformation Effect
Recall alteration due to misleading post-event information.
Rich False Memories
Detailed memories of events that never occurred.
Repressed Memories
Unconsciously blocked memories due to stress or trauma.
Retrograde Amnesia
Loss of memory for events before amnesia onset.
Anterograde Amnesia
Inability to form new memories after amnesia onset.
Clive Wearing
Suffers from retrograde and anterograde amnesia.
H.M.
Patient with severe anterograde amnesia post-epilepsy surgery.
Connectionism
Understanding cognition through interconnected information networks.
Memory Trace
Physical change in the brain when a memory is formed.
Hippocampus
Role in consolidating explicit memories.
Cerebellum
Role in implicit memories.
Basal Ganglia
Role in procedural memories and habits.
Amygdala
Role in emotional memories.
Cerebral Cortex
Storage of long-term memories distributed across regions.
Long-Term Potentiation
Long-lasting increase in synaptic strength related to memory.
Alzheimer’s Disease
Progressive disorder characterized by memory loss and cognitive decline.
Tangles
Twisted fibers of tau protein in Alzheimer's.
Plaques
Clumps of beta-amyloid protein in Alzheimer's.
Genetic Causes
Mutations in genes increasing Alzheimer's risk.
Environmental Causes
Factors like head injury contributing to Alzheimer's.
Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy
Neurodegenerative disease from repeated head injuries.
Semantic Memory
Memory for facts and general knowledge.
Episodic Memories
Memory for personal experiences.
Procedural Memory
Memory for skills and procedures.
Flashbulb Memory
Vivid memory of emotional events.
Encoding Failure
Information not stored in long-term memory.
Retrieval Failure
Inability to access stored information.
Spearman's g-factor
Refers to a general mental ability influencing overall intelligence and performance.
Retroactive interference
Occurs when new information interferes with the recall of old information.
Proactive interference
Happens when old information interferes with the recall of new information.
Algorithms
Following a recipe-like process to solve a problem.
Heuristics
Mental shortcuts simplifying decision making.
Evaluate (Goal State)
Assessing if the chosen approach solved the problem.
Means-End Analysis
Breaking down a problem into parts to reach the goal.
Creating Subgoals
Setting intermediate goals to achieve the final goal.
Insight
Sudden realization of a problem's solution.
Mental Sets
Tendencies to approach problems in familiar ways.
Fixation
Inability to see a problem from a new perspective.
Unnecessary Constraints
Self-imposed limitations hindering problem solving.
Note
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