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adenine
One of the four nucleotide bases in DNA and RNA.
anticodon
A sequence of three nucleotides on tRNA that is complementary to a specific codon on mRNA during translation.
base
A nitrogenous molecule that forms part of a nucleotide in DNA and RNA.
chromosome
A structure made of DNA and proteins that carries genetic information in the nucleus of a cell.
codon
A sequence of three nucleotides on mRNA that codes for a specific amino acid during translation.
complementary base pair
A pair of nitrogenous bases in DNA that are connected by hydrogen bonds, such as adenine-thymine and guanine-cytosine.
cytosine
One of the four nucleotide bases in DNA and RNA.
DNA
Deoxyribonucleic acid, a molecule that carries genetic instructions for the development, functioning, growth, and reproduction of all known organisms.
double helix
The twisted ladder shape formed by two strands of DNA held together by complementary base pairing and hydrogen bonds.
gene
A segment of DNA that contains the instructions for building one or more molecules of RNA or protein.
genetic code
The set of rules by which information encoded in genetic material (DNA or RNA sequences) is translated into proteins by living cells.
guanine
One of the four nucleotide bases in DNA and RNA.
mRNA
Messenger RNA, a type of RNA that carries the genetic information from DNA to the ribosome for protein synthesis.
methionine
An amino acid that serves as the start codon in protein synthesis.
mutation
A change in the DNA sequence that can lead to alterations in protein structure or function.
nucleotide
The building block of DNA and RNA, consisting of a sugar molecule, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base.
ribosome
A cellular structure that carries out protein synthesis by translating mRNA into amino acid sequences.
RNA
Ribonucleic acid, a molecule that plays a role in various biological processes, including protein synthesis.
stop codon
A sequence of three nucleotides on mRNA that signals the end of protein synthesis.
thymine
One of the four nucleotide bases in DNA.
transcription
The process by which the genetic information in DNA is copied into RNA.
translation
The process by which the genetic information in mRNA is used to synthesize proteins.
tRNA
Transfer RNA, a type of RNA that carries amino acids to the ribosome during protein synthesis.
uracil
One of the four nucleotide bases in RNA.
nucleus
A membrane-bound organelle that contains the cell's DNA and controls cellular activities.
chromatin
The complex of DNA and proteins that make up chromosomes.
histone proteins
Proteins that help package DNA into a compact and organized structure.
nuclear pore
A protein-lined channel in the nuclear envelope that regulates the passage of molecules between the nucleus and the cytoplasm.
rough endoplasmic reticulum
A network of membrane-bound tubes and sacs studded with ribosomes, involved in protein synthesis and processing.
vesicle
A small, membrane-bound sac that transports and stores substances within a cell.
golgi apparatus
An organelle involved in the processing, packaging, and secretion of proteins and lipids.
3' and 5' ends of DNA
The two ends of a DNA strand, with one end having a free 3' hydroxyl group and the other end having a free 5' phosphate group.
promoter region
A specific sequence of DNA that initiates the transcription of a particular gene.
TATA box/region
A DNA sequence that helps position RNA polymerase to initiate transcription.
template strand
The DNA strand that is used as a template during transcription to synthesize a complementary RNA molecule.
transcription factors
Proteins that bind to DNA and help regulate the transcription of genes.
RNA polymerase
An enzyme that catalyzes the synthesis of RNA from a DNA template during transcription.
intron
A non-coding region of DNA that is transcribed into RNA but is removed during RNA processing.
exon
A coding region of DNA that is transcribed into RNA and is retained in the final processed RNA molecule.
peptide bond
The covalent bond formed between two amino acids during protein synthesis.
polypeptide
A chain of amino acids linked by peptide bonds, forming part of a protein molecule.
primary structure
The linear sequence of amino acids in a protein.
secondary structure
The local folding of a polypeptide chain into regular structures, such as alpha helices and beta sheets.
tertiary structure
The overall three-dimensional shape of a protein, determined by interactions between amino acid side chains.
quaternary structure
The arrangement of multiple polypeptide chains in a protein complex.
epigenetics
The study of changes in gene expression or cellular phenotype that do not involve changes to the underlying DNA sequence.
methylation
The addition of a methyl group to DNA, often associated with gene silencing.
acetylation
The addition of an acetyl group to a protein, often associated with gene activation.
pluripotent stem cells
Stem cells that have the potential to differentiate into any type of cell in the body.
cell differentiation
The process by which cells become specialized in structure and function.
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