AP Psych - Unit 2 Vocab - Part #2: Topics 2.3 to 2.7

Storage

The process of retaining encoded information over time

Retrieval

The process of accessing and bringing into consciousness information stored in memory when its needed

Explicit Memory

Conscious recollection of factual information or personal experiences

Episodic Memory

A type of long-term memory that involves recollection of specific events, situations, and experiences in your life

Semantic Memory

Our general knowledge about the world, including facts, concepts, and ideas that are not linked to specific personal experiences

Implicit Memory

The unconscious retention and retrieval of information without conscious awareness

Procedural Memory

A part of the long-term memory responsible for knowing how to do things, also known as motor skills

Prospective Memory

Remembering to perform intended actions in the future or remembering events that will occur in the future

Long-Term Potentiation

A persistent strengthening of synapses based on recent patterns of activity

Working Memory Model

A theoretical framework that explains how the working memory system functions. It consists of three components: the phonological loop, the visuospatial sketchpad, and the central executive

Primary Memory System

The small, temporary storehouse of information currently in conscious awareness

Working Memory

A cognitive system with limited capacity that can hold information temporarily while processing or manipulating it simultaneously

Central Executive

A key component of working memory that oversees and coordinates cognitive processes, allowing for the manipulation of information and the management of attention. It acts as a control system that directs the flow of information between different subsystems while also managing tasks like decision-making and problem-solving

Phonological Loop

A component of working memory that deals with verbal and auditory information

Visuospatial Sketchpad

A component of working memory that temporarily holds and manipulates visual and spatial information

Long-Term Memory

The storage of information over extended periods of time

Multi-Store Memory Model

A theory that suggests our memories are processed through three distinct storage systems: sensory memory, short-term/working memory, and long-term memory

Sensory Memory

The initial, brief storage of sensory information that occurs immediately after a stimulus is presented

Iconic Memory

Refers to visual sensory memory, which holds visual information for about one second before it disappears or gets replaced by new information

Echoic Memory

A type of sensory memory that stores auditory information for a short period, typically 3-4 seconds

Automatic Processing

The unconscious encoding of incidental information such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information

Effortful Processing

Learning or storing (encoding) that requires attention and conscious effort

Encoding

The process of transforming information into a form that can b stored and retrieved by the brain

Levels of Processing Model

Suggests that the depth of processing applied to information during encoding determines its likelihood of being stored in long-term memory. It emphasizes that deeper, more meaningful processing leads to better memory retention

Shallow Encoding (with reference to Levels of Processing Model)

Refers to the process of encoding information in a superficial or surface-level manner, resulting in weaker storage and retrieval from long-term memory

Deep Encoding (with reference to Levels of Processing Model)

Involves close attention, focusing on an item’s meaning and relating it to something else. It leads to better recall than shallow encoding

Structural Encoding (with reference to Levels of Processing Model)

A type of shallow processing that involves focusing on the physical, structural, or appearance-based characteristics of a stimulus rather than its meaning

Phonemic Encoding (with reference to Levels of Processing Model)

The process of encoding information based on its sound or pronunciation

Semantic Encoding (with reference to Levels of Processing Model)

Processing an experience or fact based on its meaning rather than its details

Mnemonic Devices

A technique used to enhance memory and recall. It often involves creating associations between hard-to-remember information and easy-to-remember information

Method of Loci

A mnemonic technique used to improve memory and recall by associating information to be remembered with specific locations or ‘mental spaces’

Chunking

A strategy used in cognitive psychology to improve memory where large amounts of information are broken down into smaller, manageable groups or ‘chunks’

Categories

Group or classes that share similar characteristics

Hierarchies

Systems where individuals or concepts are ranked one above another based on specific criteria

Spacing Effect

A psychological phenomenon where learning is greater when studying is spread out over time, as opposed to studying the same amount of content in a single session

Memory Consolidation

The process by which short-term memories are transformed into long-term memories during sleep or rest periods

Massed Practice

Cramming or intense studying done within a short period without any significant breaks

Distributed Practice

A learning technique where study sessions are spaced out over time with breaks in between

Serial Position Effect

Out tendency to be able to recall the first and last items in a list better than those in the middle

Primary Effect

A cognitive bias that results in better recall for items at the beginning of a list or sequence

Recency Effect

A cognitive bias that results in better recall of information presented at the end of a list or sequence

Short-Term Memory

The part of the memory system where information is stored for roughly 20 seconds. It can hold about 7 items at a time

Maintenance Rehearsal

The process of repeatedly thinking about or saying information to keep it in short-term memory

Elaborative Rehearsal

A memory technique that involves thinking about the meaning of the term to be remembered, as opposed to mere repetitive rote learning

Memory Retention

The ability to store and recall previously learned information or experiences

Highly Superior Autobiographical Memory

A rare condition where one has the ability to remember nearly every day of one’s life with rich detail

Retrograde Amnesia

A type of memory loss where individuals are unable to recall events that occurred before the onset of amnesia

Anterograde Amnesia

A condition where an individual’s ability to form new memories following an event that caused the amnesia is impaired or lost, while their memory for past events may remain intact

Alzheimer’s Disease

A progressive neurocognitive disorder that causes brain cells to waste away (degenerate) and die

Amygdala

Two almond-shaped clusters located deep within the brain. It plays a crucial role in processing emotions and fear-learning

Infantile Amnesia

The inability of adults to retrieve episodic memories before the age of 2-4 years old, as well as the period before age 10 of which adults retain fewer memories than might otherwise be expected

Recall

A type of memory retrieval in which one must search for information without cues, essentially ‘filling in the blanks’

Recognition

A type of memory retrieval in which one must identify present information as having been previously presented

Retrieval Cues

Stimuli that help you retrieve a certain memory or piece of information from your long-term memory

Context-Dependent Memory

Improved recall of specific episodes or information when the context present at encoding and retrieval are the same

Mood-Congruent Memory

An individual’s ability to recall memories that match their current mood more easily than memories that don’t align with how they’re currently feeling

State-Dependent Memory

The phenomenon where people recall information better when they are in the same physiological or psychological state as when the information was encoded

Testing Effect

The finding that long-term memory is often increased when some of the learning period is devoted to retrieving the information through testing with proper feedback

Metacognition

Involves thinking about how you think. It’s awareness and understanding of your own thought processes

Forgetting Curve

A hypothesis that describes the decrease in ability of the brain to retain memory over time

Encoding Failure

The inability to effectively store or retrieve information in long-term memory due to a failure in the initial encoding process

Proactive Interference

When previously learned information interferes with the learning or recall of new information

Retroactive Interference

A memory phenomenon where newly learned information interferes with the recall of older information

Tip of the Tongue Phenomenon

A phenomenon that occurs when someone cannot recall a specific word or term, but feels certain that they know it

Repression

A psychological defense mechanism where an individual unconsciously pushes away thoughts, feelings, or memories that cause discomfort or distress

Misinformation Effect

Refers to false memories we create due to misinformation we receive after an event has occurred

Source Amnesia

When someone remembers an event but forgets where they heard or learned about it

Constructive Memory

The idea that memory isn’t a perfect recording, but rather an active, dynamic process where we rebuild past experiences using general knowledge, schemas, and new information, often leading to errors or distortions like false memories, as memories are shaped by context and imagination

Imagination Inflation

The phenomenon where imagining an event can make someone more likely to believe that event actually occurred