Chapter 16 - Neurological Disorders

Malignant Tumors

Cancerous tumors that spread to nearby tissue, causing harm

Metastases

Term describing the spread of cancerous cells from the original tumor site to other parts of the brain, forming new tumors

Benign Tumors

Tumors that do not cause harm, typically encapsulated

Encapsulation

Term describing the fibrous shell that keeps cells in place of a benign tumor, preventing spread.

Behavioral Effects

While Benign tumors are deemed “harmless”, they may still have what type of effects?

Malignant Tumors are Aggressive, Benign Tumors are Slower

The speed at which Malignant and Benign Tumors Spread

Neurons, Do not divide.

Example of cell that generally does NOT causes Tumors, Why not?

Rapid Cellular Division 

What is the general cause of tumors?

Gliomas, rapid cellular division of Glial Cells

Most serious type of Tumor, caused by rapid cellular division of what?

Glial Cells

Glioblastoma tumors arise form what cells?

Astrocytes

Astrocytomas arise from what types of cells?

Ependymal cells from ventricles

Ependymomas arise from what types of cells?

Oligodendrocytes

Oligodendrocytomas arise from what cells?

Surgery

Treatment for Tumors usually involves what?

Radiation

Treatment of specifically Malignant tumors often involves what?

Stereotactic Radiosurgery

Treatment of Malignant tumors involves the removal of a tumor aided with radiation

radiation

Treatment of Benign tumors involve surgical removal without the need of _________

Chemotherapy

Some brain tumors respond well to what type of treatment

Seizures

A period of sudden, excessive activity of cerebral neurons in the brain

Cerebral Neurons

Seizures involve overactivity of what in the brain?

Convulsion

Symptom of Seizures that involves uncontrollable activity of muscles

What system of the brain has to be affected for convulsions to occur during a seizure?

Motor System

infrequently

While convulsions are a stereotypical trait during seizures, they occur ___________________

A single seizure may occur, or many throughout a lifetime.

How frequent can seizures be?

Partial Seizures, Generalized Seizures

The two categories of Seizures

Partial Seizure

Category of seizures that have a definite focal point, or source of irritation and do not spread widely.

Localized Regions, Some degree within focal regions of the brain

Partial Seizures start in ___________________ of the brain, and spread to __________________

Temporal Cortex

Memory issues and Emotional Changes are a result of a tumor within what region of the brain?

Simple, Complex

Subtypes of Partial Seizures

Simple Partial Seizure

Subtype of Seizure involving no changes in consciousness

Complex Partial Seizure

Subtype of Seizure involving changes in consciousness

Generalized Seizures

Category of Seizure involving widespread affects to most of the brain, involving loss of consciousness

Grand mal seizure

Most severe form of seizure 

Aura

the feeling prior to a seizure.

Tonic Phase

First phase of Grand Mal Seizure involving muscles seizing and difficulty breathing

Clonic Phase

Second Phase of Grand Mal Seizure involving rapid muscle spasms and convulsions.

Exhuastion and unresponsibe sleep

Feeling after the Tonic and Clonic phases of a grand mal seizure

Aura, Tonic Phase, Clonic Phase, Unconsciousness

The order of events of a grand mal seizure

Absence Seizures (Petit Mal)

Seizure common in children, does not cause convulsions but may cause them to be unresponsive

May occurs 10s of 100s times a day.

How frequent are Absence Seizures in Children?

influx of glutamate is said to damage the hippocampus

What is said to cause brain damage from Seizures?, What area of the brain?

Severity and Frequency

What characteristics of seizures are correlated with brain damage?

Scarring due to injury, stroke, or tumor

Most common cause of seizure

High Fever

Common cause of seizure among children

Some genes cause neurons have a higher vulnerability to depolarization, leading to a higher number of open ion channels

Explain how genetic factors contribute to seizures

Idiopathic

Cause of a disease or condition which arises spontaneously with no unknown cause

Anticonvulsant Drugs, Brain Surgery

Two treatments of Seizures

GABAergic, increase effectiveness of inhibitory synapses.

What do anticonvulsant drugs do to treat seizures?

Improved Cognition

Additional effect of seizure treatment via tumor removal

Caused by Tumor

What must seizures be caused by for brain surgery to be a justified treatment?

Hemorrhagic strokes caused by bleeding in the brain, Ischemic strokes caused by obstruction of blood flow

Two types of strokes and their causes:

Thrombus

Stroke caused by a blood clot in the blood vessels

embolus

Stroke caused by a piece of material blocking a small passage way of an artery, leading to obstruction

High Blood Pressure, Defective Blood Vessel

Common causes of Hemorrhagic strokes

Middle cerebral artery:

Most common strokes involve what artery?

Excessive release of calcium, leading to the excessive release of glutamate.

What is the immediate cause of neuron death in cerebrovascular accidents?

What aids one cause, may worsen the other

Why is determining the cause of a stroke especially important before administering treatment

Reducing Blood Pressure

What are the goals of treatment for Hemorrhagic Strokes?

Remove/Dissolve Obstruction

What are the goals of treatment for Ischemic Strokes?

Hemorrhagic Strokes would be treated with medication to reduce blood pressure

How can Blood Pressure be reduced for Stroke Treatment?, What kind of stroke would this be beneficial for?

Ischemic Strokes would be treated with brain surgery or anti coagulant drugs

How can obstructions be removed? What kind of stroke would this be beneficial for

Immediately after stroke symptoms

When should Tissue Plasminogen Activator be administered for a stroke?

Desmoteplase, from saliva of vampire bats

Anticoagulant drug that was taken from another animal.

Constraint Induced Therapy

Follow-Up Treatment for stroke victims involving the restrictive usage of the affective limb, allowing the brain to remap surviving neurons.

some initial movement

In order for Constraint Induced Therapy to work, the limb must have at least ____________________

Mirror Therapy

Follow-Up Treatment for Strokes involving watching people do hand motions, may involve watching self with a reflective screen.

Penetration of skull

Open-Head Injuries are characterized by a _______________________, causing direct damage the brain

penetration of brain

Closed-Head Injuries are characterizes by an impact on the head without __________________

Coup

Term used to describe the impact site of a closed-head injury

Contrecoup

Term used to describe the opposite site of impact, often where the brain hits the skull following the force of the impact

opposite area

Being hit on the head typically causes damage on both the impact site and the __________________

Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy

Disorder as a result of numerous instances of head trauma, producing neurodegeneration from changes in protein synthesis

changes in protein synthesis

The neurodegeneration of CTE occurs as a result of what? (not the physical aspect, but the biological aspect)

Amygdala, Temporal Lobe

Changes of personality and emotion control seen in Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy occur as a result of ___________ and ___________ degeneration

Tau Protein

Protein in the brain responsible for the stabilization of neurons. Can become misfolded following repetitive impact damage, misfolding and spreading across the brain.

Glutamate

The spread of misfolded Tau Proteins leads to the excessive release of what neurochemical?

Corpus Callosum

Area of the brain characterized as experiencing atrophy following repetitive head and brain injuries

(Hint: Connects the two hemispheres)

swelling, intracranial pressure.

Main treatments for Traumatic Brain Injuries aim to reduce __________ and ______________________

Inhibit the release of glutamate

given the effect that Tau Proteins have, treatment for Traumatic Brain Injuries may involving Drugs that ______________________

Transmissible Spongiform Encephalopathies (TSE)

Condition that causes degradation throughout the entire brain, characterized by its spongelike appearance

Prions

Transmissible Spongiform Encephalopathies are caused by interaction between misfolded _________

hard to destroy

TSEs tend to be incurable, this may be due to the nature of Prions being _______________

In the membrane of neurons

Where are Prions found?

Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy

Technical term for Mad Cow Disease

Sheep

Animal effected by the TSE “Scrapie”

“Deer”

Animal Effected by the TSE “Wasting Disease”

Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease

Name of the TSE that is related to humans

High Heat, Cooking

Prions are incredible resistant to _________________, as such even ____________ wont eradicate from the meat

long-term memory

Prions are thought to play a role in _____________________

prions

For a TSE to occur within an animal, the animal MUST possess __________ in the brain

Sporadic

Most cases of TSEs are _________

Sporadic

Term used to describe the random occurrence in the environment.

True

True or False: Mad Cow Disease can be transmitted to Humans?

Apoptosis

Term used to describe the phenomenon where a cell kills itself if it notices something very wrong with it

Misfolded Prions, Apoptosis

TSE effects cells as cells notice too much ___________________, leading to ____________

Chemical Signal, Disrupted Biochemical

Apoptosis can be triggered externally by a _______________, or internally by ________________ processes

“Killer” Enzymes

Nickname given to caspases enzymes

Caspases

Enzyme involved in the suicide of a cell (Apoptosis). Nicknamed the “Killer” Enzyme

Parkin

Protein responsible for the destruction of misfolded proteins, found deficient in parkinson’s disease

Dopamine reduction in Nigrostriatal Pathway

Parkinson’s Disease involves the reduction of what chemical in what pathway?