Graphic Design Midterm

What are petroglyphs?

Carved or Scratched signs or simple figures on rocks

What is an ideograph?

Symbols to represent ideas or concepts

How/What were the earliest written records (Sumerian) made of?

Clay & Reed Stylus

Over several centuries, writing styles changed, including the tools for mark making. Pictographs evolved into cuneiform, which means in Latin:

Wedge – shaped

Code of Hammurabi spelled out:

Crime & Punishments

Cylinder Seals were in use for over 3,000 years. These small cylinders had images and writing etched into their surfaces. These were essentially ____________________ for the owners and were virtually impossible to _____________. These were worn around the neck or wrist and were seen as the first form of ________________. 
---Fill in the Blanks.

Trademarks, forge/fake/copy, printing

Hieroglyphics are:

Egyptian picture-writing system

rebus

Using pictures for sounds

papyrus

paperlike substrate for manuscripts made from a plant that grew along the Nile in shallow marshes and pools

Who were the first people to produce illustrated manuscripts?

Egyptians

The word ”alphabet” is derived from the 1st two letters of the _______________ alphabet, Alpha and Beta.

greek

Which Alphabet was adopted and adapted by Ancient Greeks?

Phoenician (North Semitic)

Debate has centered on the elegant Roman serifs, which are:

Small lines extending from the ends of the major strokes of a letterform

What is parchment?

A writing surface made from the skins of domestic animals – particularly calves, sheep and goats.

What is vellum?

The finest type of parchment

The codex, a revolutionary design format, began to supplant the scroll in Rome and Greece, about the time of Christ. __________________ was gathered in signatures of 2, 4 or 8 sheets. These were then folded, stitched, and combined into codices with pages like a modern book. Both sides of these pages could be used for writing and this saved storage space and material costs.

Parchment

Around the first century B.C., the Roman alphabet—the forerunner of the contemporary English alphabet—contained twenty-three letters. The letters J, V, and W were added __________. The J is an outgrowth of the I, which was lengthened to indicate use with consonantal force, particularly as the first letter of some words. Both U and W are variants of V, which was used for two different sounds in England.

during the Middle Ages

____________________________ sought the codex format to distance themselves from the _______________________ scroll.

Christians, pagan

Hangul, the __________________ alphabet, is one of the most scientific writing systems ever invented. 

Korean

The Hangul alphabet, which was introduced by royal decree in A.D. 1446, consists of fourteen consonants represented by __________.

abstract depictions of the mouth and tongue

Chinese characters are _________________, graphic signs that represent an entire word.

logograms

For Chinese, learning the total vocabulary of ______________________ characters was the sign of wisdom and scholarship.

44,000

Calligraphy was said to have ___________________ (authority & size), ___________________ (the proportion of the characters), blood (texture of the fluid ink), and muscle (spirit & vital force).

bones, meat

The invention of paper is attributed to the Chinese, specifically to the eunuch and high governmental official Cai (Ts’ai) Lun in  ___________.

A.D. 105

Who invented Printing? The first form was relief printing.

Chinese

Relief printing happens when the spaces around an image on a flat surface are cut away, the remaining raised surface is inked, and a sheet of paper is placed over the surface and rubbed to transfer the inked image to the paper. One of the first methods were seals made by carving calligraphic characters into a flat surface of jade, silver, gold, or ivory. These were called _____________.

chops

In China, shortly before the year 1,000, paper ____________ was designed and printed….making China the first society in which ordinary people had daily contact with printed images.

money

The earliest known Chinese writing, called __________, was in use from 1800 to 1200 B.C. and was closely bound to the art of divination, an effort to foretell future events through communication with the gods or long-dead ancestors. It was also called bone-and-shell script because it was incised on tortoise shells and the flat shoulder bones of large animals, called oracle bones.

chiaku-wen

In earlier times, the Chinese wrote on bamboo slats or wooden strips using a bamboo pen and dense, durable ink. After the invention of woven silk cloth, it, too, was used as a writing substrate; however, it was very costly. __________, a Chinese high government official, is credited with the invention of paper in A.D. 105, and was deified as the god of the papermakers. His process for making paper from natural fibers continued almost unchanged until papermaking was mechanized in nineteenth-century England

Cai (Ts’ai) Lun

When making a woodblock print in China, the wood around each character is painstakingly cut away. Around A.D. 1045, the Chinese alchemist Pi Sheng extended this process by developing the concept of __________, an innovative printing process that was never widely used in Asia because the sheer number of characters made the process too tedious.

moveable type

Manuscript was costly time-consuming. Parchment or vellum took hours to prepare and a large book might require the skins of _______________________ .

300 sheep

Production of illuminated manuscripts in the scriptorium, or writing room, included the head of the scriptorium, called the scrittori, a well-educated scholar who understood Greek and Latin and functioned as both an editor and art director. The __________ was a production letterer who spent his days bent over a writing table penning page after page in a trained lettering style.

copisti

The Vatican Virgil, completely Roman and pagan in its conception and execution, is an example of the __________ manuscript style. This volume, created in the late fourth or early fifth century A.D., contains two major poems by Rome’s greatest poet, Publius Vergilius Maro: the Aeneid and the Georgics. The illustrations combine rustic capitals with echoes of the rich colors and illusionist space of the wall frescoes of Pompeii.

classical

__________ design, as seen in the Book of Durrow, is abstract and extremely complex; geometric linear patterns weave, twist, and fill the space with thick visual textures, and bright, pure colors are used in juxtaposition.

 

Celtic

Charlemagne mandated reform by royal edict in A.D. 789 and succeeded in reforming the alphabet with the use of four guidelines, ascenders, and descenders. The resulting uniform script, called __________, is the forerunner of our contemporary lowercase alphabet.

Caroline miniscules

Many examples of Moorish-influenced manuscripts from Spain, such as the Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse from the Beatus of Fernando and Sancha, in which arrows pierce the hearts of nonbelievers, are texts on ___________.

the Book of Revelation

During the Romanesque period (A.D. c. 1000 to 1150), which saw renewed religious fervor and even stronger feudalism, universal design characteristics seemed possible because ___________.

travel increased due to the crusades and pilgrimages

The textura lettering style (from the Lain texturum, meaning woven fabric or texture) seen in Gothic manuscripts—composed of vertical strokes capped with pointed serifs—was also called by other terms, which were misleading and vague. Which name was the preferred name during its time? ___________

littera moderna

Muhammad called upon his followers to learn to read and write, and calligraphy quickly became an important tool for government business and religion. Islamic manuscript decoration is characterized by all but one of the elements below. Which does NOT belong? __________

figurative illustrations

In the early 1400s, the___________, a private devotional text that contained religious texts, prayers, and calendars listing the days of the important saints, became Europe’s most popular book.

Book of Hours

In the early scriptorium, the ________ was responsible for the execution of ornament and image in visual support of the text.

illuminator

The ____________ of a manuscript or book is an inscription, usually at the end, containing facts about its production.

colophon

So named because they were written between two guidelines that were one inch apart, __________ were rounded, freely drawn letters more suited to rapid writing.

uncials

In the early fifteenth century, the Limbourg brothers created their masterpiece, ___________, which included an illustrated calendar depicting the seasonal activities of each month crowned with graphic astronomical charts. They sought a convincing realism as atmospheric perspective pushed planes and volumes back in deep space.

Les très riches heures du Duc de Berry

___________, which ranged in size from small enough to fit in a person’s hand to about 10 by 14 inches, were the first known European block printings with a communications function. Image and lettering were cut from the same block of wood and printed as a complete word-and-picture unit.

Devotional prints of saints

Death was an ever-present preoccupation in fourteenth-century Europe. The great cycles of bubonic plague, called the Black Death, claimed one fourth of Europe’s inhabitants during the fourteenth century and caused thousands of villages to either vanish totally or become critically depopulated. ___________ was a type of block book that offered advice on preparing for death and how to meet one’s final hour.

The Ars Moriendi

Several factors created a climate in fifteenth-century Europe that made typography feasible: an insatiable demand for books, an emerging literate middle class, students in the rapidly expanding universities who had seized the monopoly on literacy from the clergy and created a vast new market for reading material, and the slow, expensive, process of bookmaking, which had changed little in one thousand years. However, without _____________, which reached Europe by way of a six-hundred-year journey, the speed and efficiency of printing would have been useless.

paper

Printers in Germany, the Netherlands, France, and Italy sought after the mechanization of book production by such means as movable type. It was _______________ of Haarlem in Holland who explored the concept of movable type first by cutting out letters or words from his woodblocks for reuse.

Laurens Janszoon Costerrr

Around 1450, Johann Gutenberg was the first to bring together the complex systems and subsystems necessary to print a typographic book, including a thick, tacky ink that could be smoothly applied and did not run off the metal type; a strong, sturdy press; and a metal alloy that was soft enough to cast yet hard enough to hold up for thousands of impressions. But the key to his invention was the __________ used for casting the individual letters.

type mold

Johann Gutenberg adopted ___________, the style of manuscript lettering commonly used by German scribes of his day, as the model for his type, because early printers sought to compete with calligraphers by imitating their work as closely as possible.

textura

A heroic effort was required to produce the Forty-two Line Bible, so-named because the first nine pages have forty lines per column, the tenth page has forty-one lines per column, and the remaining pages have forty-two lines per column. The increase of two lines per column saved an additional sixty pages. Gutenberg’s original format included three characteristics below. Which does NOT belong? ___________

418 full-page illustrations

At the same time (and in the same area of Europe) that Johann Gutenberg invented moveable type, an unidentified artist called the Master of the Playing Cards created the earliest known __________.

copperplate engravings

In papermaking, a translucent emblem, or ______________, can be produced by pressure from a raised design on a mold. It is visible when a sheet of paper is held up to light. These were used in Italy as early as 1282, and as they grew in popularity, they began to be used to designate sheet and mold sizes as well as paper grade.

watermark

The magnificent Latin Psalter published by _________ on August 14, 1457, was the first book to bear a printer’s trademark and imprint, printed date of publication, and colophon. In addition, the Psalter had large red and blue initials printed from two-part metal blocks that were inked separately, reassembled, and either printed with the text in one press impression, or stamped after the text was printed. These famous decorated two-color initials were a major innovation.

Johann Fust and Peter Schoeffer

The Renaissance innovators altered the perception of information by creating two visual systems: painting and typography. Typography created a sequential and repeatable ordering of information and space, as well as three of the following situations. Which one does NOT belong? ____________

Typography evoked illusions of the natural world on flat surfaces through such means as the fixed viewpoint.

After Johann Gutenberg’s invention of moveable type, typographic printing spread rapidly. By 1500, printing was practiced in over 140 towns throughout Europe. In addition to books, a vast array of ephemera, including religious tracts, pamphlets, and broadsides, were printed during this period. Books printed from Gutenberg’s invention of typography until the end of the fifteenth century are referred to as _____________ texts, a Latin word that means “cradle” or “rebirth.”

incunabula

Early printers followed the manuscript custom of putting the title and author at the top of the first page, in the same size and style lettering as the text. A short space was skipped, then Incipit, the Latin term for “__________,” launched the book.

here begins

At his press in Ulm, ____________ used woodblock prints in many of his books that were not completely enclosed with rectangular borders, allowing the whitespace from the margins to flow into the pictures. This approach can be seen in the 175 woodcuts of the 1479 edition of Aesop’s Vita et fabulae (Life and Tales).

Zainer

Erhard Reuwich was the first __________ to be identified as such in a book for his work in Peregrinationes in Montem Syon (Travels in Mount Syon), which was printed with Peter Schoeffer’s types in 1486.

illustrator

Published in German and Latin versions in 1493, this six-hundred-page book was an ambitious history of the world from the biblical dawn of creation until 1493. The title page for the index is a full-page woodblock of calligraphy attributed to the scribe George Alt. The book contained 1,809 woodcut illustrations in its complex, carefully designed, 18-by-12-inch pages and is considered one of the masterpieces of graphic design from this period.

Nuremberg Chronicle

This Renaissance artist, whose godfather was Anton Koberger, became well known at age twenty-seven for his detailed woodcuts in the Latin and German editions of The Apocalypse. The woodcuts have an unprecedented emotional power and graphic expressiveness. __________ became a major influence in the cultural exchange that saw the Renaissance spirit filter into Germany. He believed German artists and craftsmen were producing work inferior to that of the Italians because they lacked theoretical knowledge. This inspired his first book, Underweysung der Messung mit dem Zirkel und Richtscheit (A Course in the Art of Measurement with Compass and Ruler), which included theoretical discussions of linear geometry, two-dimensional geometric construction, and clear instructions for constructing beautifully proportioned Roman capitals.

Albrecht Dürer

Martin Luther found a loyal friend and follower in __________, who had been called to Wittenberg by the electors of Saxony. He operated a studio as well as a printing office, a bookshop, and a paper mill. He furthered the cause of the Protestant Reformation by portraying the reformers and their cause in books and broadsides. Ironically, he also regularly accepted commissions for Madonnas and Crucifixions from Catholic clients, and many of the woodcuts he produced for the Luther Bible were also used in a subsequent Catholic edition.

Lucas Cranach the Elder

Italy was at the forefront of Europe’s transition from the feudal medieval world to one of cultural and commercial renaissance. Italy sponsored the first printing press outside of Germany when Cardinal Turrecremata of the Benedictine monastery at Subiaco invited two printers, _____________, to establish a press. The types that they designed marked the first step toward a Roman-style typography based on letterforms that had been developed by Italian scribes. They created a typographic “double alphabet” by combining the capital letters of ancient Roman inscriptions with the rounded miniscules that had evolved in Italy from the Caroline miniscule.

Arnold Pannartz and Conrad Sweynheym

William Caxton left his native land for the textile center of Bruges in the Low Country, where he set up his own business as a merchant and diplomat. In the early 1470s, while spending a year and a half in Cologne, he learned printing. Upon returning to Bruges, he set up a press. The typographic works of William Caxton are significant for three of the reasons listed below. Which does NOT belong? 

They were elegant and refined.

Philippe Pigouchet’s Horae (Book of Hours) established the graphic excellence of this popular book form, such as his 1498 Horae Beatus Virginis Mariae (Hours ofthe Blessed Virgin Mary). The dense complexity of illustration, typography, and ornaments compressed into the space is typical of Pigouchet’s book design. He is credited with introducing criblé, a technique for woodblock printing that features ________.

white dots punched into black areas to create tone

A single leaf of paper printed on both sides is frequently called a ___________.

broadsheet

___________, the center of commerce and Europe’s gateway to trade with the eastern Mediterranean nations, India, and the Orient, led the way in Italian typographic book design

Venice

A goldsmith from Mainz, Germany, _______________ was given a five-year monopoly on printing in Venice. He printed the first typographic book with page numbers, the 1470 edition of De civitate dei, and designed an innovative and handsome Roman type that cast off some of the Gothic qualities found in earlier fonts.

Johannes de Spira

_______________, who had been master of the Royal Mint of Tours, France, was a highly skilled cutter of the dies used for striking coins. He established Venice’s second press. One of history’s greatest typeface designers and punch cutters, his fonts were characterized by extreme legibility and established a new standard of excellence, with wider letterforms, lighter tone, and a more even texture of black strokes on the white background.

Nicolas Jenson

Fear and superstition were swept away as scientists began to understand natural phenomena, leading to a shift in content for graphic design. In Erhard Ratdolt’s ____________, sixty diagrams printed in black and yellow were used to scientifically explain solar and lunar eclipses. The understanding of eclipses moved from black magic to predictable fact, and the book contains a three-part mathematical wheel for calculating solar cycles

Calendarium

Roberto Valturio’s manual on warfare, De re militari (About Warfare), which is identified as having been printed by Johannes Nicolai de Verona, includes examples of the fine-line style of woodblock illustration that became popular in Italian graphic design later in the fifteenth century. This extraordinary book is a compendium of contemporary techniques and devices for scaling walls, catapulting missiles, ramming fortifications, and torturing enemies. The text is set in a tight column with wide margins, and the freely shaped images are spread across the pages in dynamic, __________ layouts.

asymmetrical

In 1501, the Aldine Press published Virgil’s Opera (Works), which was the prototype of the ________ book. This edition had a 3.75-by-6-inch page size and was set in the first italic type font. Between the smaller type size and the narrower width of italic characters, a 50 percent gain in the number of characters per line of a given measure was achieved over Nicolas Jenson’s and Francesco Griffo’s types.

pocket

With the sack of Rome, the Italian Renaissance began to fade and eventually innovation in book design and printing passed to ___________, where two brilliant graphic artists, Geoffrey Tory and Claude Garamond, created visual forms that were embraced for two hundred years.

france

___________, the first punch cutter who worked independently of printing firms, established his type foundry to sell cast type that was ready to distribute into compositors’ cases. The fonts he cut during the 1540s achieved a tighter fit that allowed closer word spacing and a harmony of design between capitals, lowercase letters, and italics.

Claude Garamond

When a serious arm injury ended Christophe Plantin’s bookbinding career in the early 1550s, he changed his occupation to printing, and the Netherlands found its greatest printer. His company became the world’s largest and strongest publishing house and printed a full range of material, including classics and Bibles, herbals and medicine books, music and maps. Plantin’s main design contribution was the use of __________ to illustrate his books.

copperplate engravings

In 1639, _______________, a Bristish locksmith and his son, designed and printed the first book in the English American colonies, The Whole Booke of Psalms (now called The Bay Psalm Book). The design and production of this book understandably lacked refinement. In spite of strong censorship and a stamp tax on newspapers and advertising, printing grew steadily in the colonies.

Stephen and Matthew Daye

A master of the Royal Mint of Tours, France, he was a highly skilled cutter of the dies used for striking coin. He established Venice’s second press shortly after Johannes de Spira’s death, and became one of history’s greatest typeface designers and punch cutters, whose ability to design the spaces between the letters and within each form created an even tone throughout the page. The characters in his fonts aligned more perfectly than those of any other printer of his time. His types first used in Eusebius’s De praeparatione evangelica (Evangelical Preparation) present the full flowering of Roman type design.

Nicolas Jenson

An important humanist and scholar of the Italian Renaissance, he founded the Aldine Press, which published major works of the great thinkers of the Greek and Roman worlds and the prototype of the pocket book, which addressed the need for smaller, more economical books. Especially noteworthy is Aldine’s 1499 edition of Fra Francesco Colonna’s Hypnerotomachia Poliphili (The Strife of Love in a Dream or The Dream of Poliphilus), a masterpiece of graphic design that achieved an elegant harmony of typography and illustration that has seldom been equaled.

Aldus Manutius

A true renaissance man who introduced the apostrophe, the accent, and the cedilla to the French language and developed a uniquely French Renaissance school of book design and illustration, as seen in Champ Fleury (subtitled The art and science of the proper and true proportions of the attic letters, which are otherwise called antique letters, and in common speech roman letters). In Champ Fleury, first published in 1529, he discusses the history of roman letters and compares their proportions with the ideal proportions of the human figure and face, which influenced a generation of French printers and punch cutters. He became the most influential graphic designer of his century.

Geoffroy Tory

A typeface designer and punch cutter who was the first to work independently of printing firms, he established his type foundry to sell cast type ready to distribute into compositors’ cases. The types he cut during the 1540s achieved a mastery of visual form and a tighter fit that allowed closer word spacing and a harmony of design between capitals, lowercase letters, and italics. The influence of writing as a model diminished in his work, for typography was evolving into a language of form rooted in the processes of making steel punches, casting metal type, and printing instead of imitating forms created by hand gestures.

Claude Garamond

He created delicate italic fonts featuring beautiful italic capitals with swashes to replace regular capitals that were being used with italic lowercase letters. The fleurons he designed were modular and could be put together in endless combinations to make headpieces, tailpieces, ornaments, and borders.

Robert Granjon

An emblem designed to identify a book produced by a certain printer


trademarks

Decorative elements cast like type


fleurons

The connecting curves that unify a serif with the main stroke of a letter


bracketing

An ornamental design at the top of a page


headpiece

An ornamental design at the bottom of a page

tailpiece

In 1695, Louis Simonneau created large engraved copperplate prints of the master alphabets for France’s Imprimerie Royale, the royal printing office. These copperplate engravings were intended to establish graphic standards for the new typeface, which was called ____________.

Romain du Roi

The Romain du Roi types began a new category of types called ____________roman. The new typeface had increased contrast between thick and thin strokes, sharp horizontal serifs, and an even balance to each letterform.

transitional

Pierre Simon Fournier le Jeune was influenced by the Romain du Roi and by the ornate French rococo style. Fournier le Jeune and his contemporary, Louis-René Luce, contributed to the French monarchy’s graphic expression of authority and opulence through their type designs and series of letterpress borders, ornaments, trophies, and other devices. Fournier le Jeune’s other typographic innovations include three of the following. Which one does NOT belong? __________

Moveable type

The renowned English writing master and engraver ___________ was the most celebrated penman of his time. In 1743, he published The Universal Penman.

George Bickham

Englishman John Pine printed independent books such as Opera Horatii (Works of Horace), in which he ____________, resulting in the serifs and thin strokes of letterforms being reduced to delicate lines. The contrast in the text was dazzling and inspired imitation by typographic designers.

printed both the illustrations and text from one copper plate for each page

In 1722, William Caslon, an engraver of gunlocks and barrels, designed Caslon Old Style and its italic version. ________________ introduced the typeface Caslon into the American colonies, where it was used extensively, including for the official printing of the Declaration of Independence.

Benjamin Franklin

A native of rural Worcestershire, John Baskerville had “admired the beauty of letters” as a boy; as a young man, he became a master writing teacher and stone cutter. After making a fortune manufacturing japanned ware, he returned to his first love, the art of letters, and began to experiment with printing. His refined printing resulted from three of the four elements listed below. Which does NOT belong? _________

arabesques in headpieces and tailpieces

Baskerville’s type design represents the zenith of the __________ style. Histypes are wider, the contrast between the weight of the thick and thin strokes greater, and the serifs flow smoothly out of the major strokes and terminate in fine points.

transitional

_____________, the Scottish author and scientist who converted statistical data into symbolic graphics, introduced the first “divided circle” diagram (called a pie chart today) in his 1805 English translation of The Statistical Account of the United States of America. He created a new category of graphic design, now called information graphics.

William Playfair

The revolt against the French monarchy led to rejection of the lush designs that were popular during the reigns of Louis XV and XVI. All areas of design required a new approach to replace the outmoded rococo style. Giambattista Bodoni led the way in evolving new ___________ and page layouts.

typefaces

Giambattista Bodoni was asked to take charge of the Stamperia Reale, the official press of Ferdinand, Duke of Parma. He accepted, became the private printer of the court, and printed official documents and publications as well as projects he conceived and initiated himself. Bodoni redefined roman letterforms, giving them a more mathematical, geometric, and mechanical look. He reinvented the serifs by making them hairlines that formed sharp right angles to the upright strokes; the thin strokes of his letterforms were the same weight as the hairline serifs. His typeface design exemplifies the ________________.

modern style

Late works printed by Giambattista Bodoni, such as Virgil’s Opera (Works) reflect the contemporary late eighteenth-century ____________ style, which demonstrated a return to “antique virtue.”

neoclassical

The Didot family type foundry revised Pierre Simon Fournier le Jeune’s system of type measurement and created the ___________ system, which divided a French inch into seventy-two points. Type size was identified by the measure of the metal type body in points. In 1886, the Didot system was revised to suit the English inch and adopted as a standard point measure by American type foundries.

pied de roi

Pierre Didot l’Aîné printed the Éditions du Louvre from the printing office once occupied by the Imprimerie Royale, The Éditions du Louvre series included ____________.

classics by Virgil