lesson 1 : intro to research methodology [fmpsy]

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Field methods in Psychology

▪ Involve studying human behavior in its natural environment

▪ Allow researchers to observe and collect data in real-world settings, providing a more naturalistic and authentic understanding of psychological phenomena

Naturalistic Observation

An advantage of field methods wherein researchers can observe behavior as it naturally occurs, minimizing artificiality and increase ing ecological validity

Real-world Relevance

An advantage of field methods stating that findings are more likely to be applicable to real-life situations and populations

In-depth Understanding

An advantage of field methods stating that field methods often allow for rich, detailed data collection, providing deeper insights into psychological phenomena

Flexibility

An advantage of field methods stating that researchers can adapt their methods to unexpected events or discoveries, promoting flexibility and creativity

Cost-effective

An advantage of field methods stating that compared to laboratory experiments, field research can often be less expensive

Lack of Control

A challenge of field methods which indicate that researchers have limited control over variables, making it difficult to establish cause-and-effect relationships

Subjectivity

A challenge of field methods which indicate that observations can be influenced by researcher bias, leading to potential subjectivity in data interpretation

Time-consuming

Field research can be time-insensitive, requiring patience and perseverance as a challenge

Ethical Considerations

It is a challenge for researchers to carefully consider ethical implications, such as informed consent and privacy

Data analysis

Analyzing qualitative data from field research can be challenging and time-consuming

Seek or search

French word “cerchier” meaning “to _____.”

Research

Attempts to solve or gain a solution to a problem

Research According to Redman & Morry

research is a careful systematized effort of gaining new knowledge

Research According to Clifford Woody

• research comprises of defining and redefining problems, formulating hypothesis or suggested solutions, collecting, organizing, and evaluating data, making deductions and reaching conclusions.

• including carefully testing the conclusions, to determine, whether they fit formulating hypothesis or not

Technical competency

ability to use available technologies

Utility competency

ability to troubleshoot during unexpected scenario

Patience

intra (within) and extra (outside) group

Service

willingness of the researcher to serve others, to do good

Effort

time and skill

Guts and risk

considering options

Care

distinct characteristics of a researcher

Postpositivist

Philosophy: “We cannot be positive in our claims of knowledge when studying behavior and actions of humans”

Main concept: subscribes to the idea that everything should be quantified to produce meaningful concrete results

Example: Satisfaction of students would be expressed in percentage in relation to the overall numbers

Constructivist

Philosophy: “Individuals develop subjective meanings of their experiences”

Main concept: believed that experience expressed through words can paint a better picture of a certain phenomena

Example: Analyzing the satisfaction of students should consider their verbatim comments and experiences rather than numbers

Transformative

Philosophy: “Research inquiry should be intertwined with politics and political change agenda”

Main concept: supports the idea that research should be conducted to increase quality of life and produce better societies

Example: A researcher conduct research on waste segregation since he believe that the results may help in the development of valuable program and aid in policy-making

Pragmatic

Philosophy: “We need to look to many possibilities for collecting and analyzing data”

Main concept: promotes the use of both quantitative and qualitative data in expressing research findings

Example: A student reports the percentage of smokers in the campus, as well as the reasons for smoking in a study

Conceptualization Phase

• Identify the topic of study

• Choose a concept that is neither too broad nor too specific, allowing for flexibility and further exploration

• Conduct a literature review, which is required for quantitative studies but optional for qualitative inquiries

• After selecting the topic, frame the objectives or define the ‘central question’ to be addressed

• In qualitative research, the central question should focus on understanding human experiences through words rather than quantifying perceptions

Design Phase

• Also known as “planning phase”

• Involves outlining the detailed procedures for data collection and analysis

• Researchers must agree on the methods, locations, and timing for conducting and analyzing the study

Empirical Phase

• Data gathering and collection take place

• Researchers are prepared with the right attitude, behavior, and tools to collect data from the identified sources

• In qualitative studies, partticipants are often referred to as key informants or co-researchers

• Interviews and focus group discussions (FGDs) are commonly used methods, typically guided by interview guides or ‘aide memoire’

Analytical Phase

• Often the most challenging part of the research process

• Researchers prepare and assess the data using various tools and their own understanding, supported by personal beliefs and previous research in the same field

• In qualitative studies, interview texts are condensed into manageable statements and organized into themes

• Many studies produce a model or simulacrum to summarize the themes that emerged

• During this phase, the study’s results are interpreted before the final write-up or research manuscript is created

Dissemination Phase

• Crucial but often overlooked by researchers

• It is recommended that research findngs, presented in a well-written manuscript , be shared with the general public or with specific populations or professional groups that can benefit from the results

Method

• “What data will be gathered?”

• Types: historical (past), descriptive (present), experimental (future)

Technique

• “How data will be gathered?”

• Types: survey, interview, doodling

Approach

• “How will the data be processed?”

• Types: Quantitative, qualitative, or mixed-method

Quantitative

_______________ Research involves:

• Data collection: numerical data (e.g., surveys, experiments)

• Data analysis: statistical analysis

• Research questions: focused on testing hypotheses, measuring variables, and establishing cause-and-effect relationships

• Data presentation: numbers, graphs, tables

• Role of researcher: objective and detached

• Generalizability: aims for generalization of findings to a larger population

• Examples: surveys, experiments, randomized controlled trials

Mixed Method

_______________ Research involves:

• Data collection: combination of numerical and textual data

• Data analysis: both statistical and thematic analysis

• Research questions: combines both exploratory and explanatory questions

• Data presentation: combination of numbers, graphs, and textual descriptions

• Role of researcher: both objective and subjective

• Generalizability: combines strengths of both approaches for broader and deeper insights

• Examples: surveys with open-ended questions, experiments with follow-up interviews

Qualitative

_______________ Research involves:

• Data collection: textual, visual, or audio data (e.g., interviews, observations)

• Data analysis: thematic analysis, content analysis, narrative analysis

• Research questions: focused on exploring, understanding, and interpreting phenomena

• Data presentation: quotes, descriptions, narratives

• Role of researcher: subjective and involved

• Generalizability: seeks in-depth understanding of a specific content

• Examples: interviews, focus groups, ethnography

Emerging methods

Quantitative methods: pre-determined ; Qualitative methods _____

Instrument-based questions

Quantitative methods: _______ ; Qualitative methods: open-ended questions

Interview data, observation data, document data, audiovisual data

QN methods: Performance data, attitude data, observational data, census data

QL methods: _____

Text & image analysis

Quantitative methods: statistical analysis ; Qualitative methods: ____

Statistical interpretation

Quantitative methods: _____ ; Qualitative methods: themes, patterns interpretation

Predictive or Prognostic Research

____ is a research according to purpose which:

• Aims to forecast future trends or outcomes based on current data

  • E.g., predicting the number of students who will enroll in a specific course next semester based on previous enrollment data

Directive Research

____ is a research according to purpose which:

• Seeks to solve specific problems or issues and suggest solutions

  • E.g., research on improving student retention rates in a university

Illuminative Research

____ is a research according to purpose which:

• Explores and understand underlying reasons, opinions, and motivations

  • E.g., studying the factors influencing students’ choice of college major

Basic or Pure Research

___is a research according to goal which:

• Focuses on expanding knowledge and understanding of fundamental principles without immediate practical application

  • E.g., research on the nature of human consciousness

Applied Research

___is a research according to goal which:

• Seeks to solve practical problems and find solutions to real-world issues

  • E.g., developing a new teaching method to improve student learning outcomes

Exploratory Research

___is a research according to the levels of investigation which:

• Investigates a problem or topic not previously studied to gather preliminary information

  • E.g., exploring the potential market for a new product

Descriptive Research

___is a research according to the levels of investigation which:

• Describes the characteristics of a population or phenomenon

  • E.g., a survey to determine the demographics of a city

Experimental Research

___is a research according to the levels of investigation which:

• Manipulates variables to establish cause-and-effect relationships

  • E.g., testing the effectiveness of a new drug on a group of patients

Analytic Approach

___is a research according to the type of analysis which:

• Breaks down a problem or subject into smaller components for in-depth study

  • E.g., analyzing the factors contributing to student dropout rates

Holistic Approach

___is a research according to the type of analysis which:

• Examines the entire system or phenomenon as a whole

  • E.g., studying the impact of climate change on a community

Evaluation Research

___is a research according to choice of answers to problems which:

• Assess the effectiveness of programs, policies, or interventions

  • E.g., evaluating the impact of a new school curriculum on student achievement

Developmental Research

___is a research according to choice of answers to problems which:

• Studies the growth and development of individuals or groups over time

  • E.g., research on child development from birth to adolescence

Quantitative Research

___is a research according to choice of answers to problems which:

• Uses numerical data and statistical analysis to test hypotheses

  • E.g., a survey to measure customer satisfaction

Non-quantitative Research

___is a research according to choice of answers to problems which:

• Relies on qualitative data such as observations, interviews, and documents

  • E.g., an ethnographic study of a cultural group

Historical Research

___is a research according to time element which:

• Investigate past events to understand the present

  • E.g., studying the history of a particular social movement

Descriptive Research

___is a research according to time element which:

• Describes the current status of a phenomenon

  • E.g., a survey to determine the prevalence of smoking among teenagers

Experimental Research

___is a research according to time element which:

• Manipulates variables to determine cause-and-effect relationships in the present

  • E.g., testing the effectiveness of a new teaching method on student performance

Tradition

• A hindrance to scientific inquiry (err in personal judgment)

• Relying on established beliefs or customs without questioning their validity

  • E.g., believing that a particular herbal remedy is effective simply because it has been used for generations without considering scientific evidence

Authority

• A hindrance to scientific inquiry (err in personal judgment)

• Accepting information as true because it comes from a respected source without critical evaluation

  • E.g., believing that a certain diet is healthy solely because a famous celebrity endorses it

Inaccurate Observation

• A hindrance to scientific inquiry (err in personal judgment)

• Making mistakes in observing or recording information

  • E.g., incorrectly recording data during an experiment due to human error

Overgeneralization

• A hindrance to scientific inquiry (err in personal judgment)

• Drawing broad conclusions from limited observations

  • E.g., assuming that all people from a certain country share the same characteristics based on a few interactions

Selective Observation

• A hindrance to scientific inquiry (err in personal judgment)

• Focusing on information that confirms existing beliefs while ignoring contradictory evidence

  • E.g., only noticing instances that support a stereotype about a particular group

Made-up Information

• A hindrance to scientific inquiry (err in personal judgment)

• Creating false information to fill gaps in knowledge

  • E.g., inventing data to support a desired outcome

Illogical Reasoning

• A hindrance to scientific inquiry (err in personal judgment)

• Using faulty logic to reach conclusions

  • E.g., assuming that because two events occurred together, one cause the other

Ego-Involvement in Understanding

• A hindrance to scientific inquiry (err in personal judgment)

• Allowing personal beliefs or emotions to interfere with objective analysis

  • E.g., rejecting scientific evidence that contradicts a cherished belief

Mystification

• A hindrance to scientific inquiry (err in personal judgment)

• Attributing unexplained phenomena to supernatural or mystical forces

  • E.g., explaining a complex event as the work of a higher power without seeking natural explanations

To Err is Human

• A hindrance to scientific inquiry (err in personal judgment)

• Recognizing that mistakes are a normal part of the human condition

  • E.g., acknowledging the possibility of errors in research and taking steps to minimize them

Dogmatism

• A hindrance to scientific inquiry (err in personal judgment)

• Tenaciously holding onto beliefs without considering alternative viewpoints

  • E.g., refusing to change one’s mind about a controversial topic despite overwhelming evidence to the contrary

Descriptive Research

• Type of Quantitative Research

• Describes the characteristics of a population or phenomenon

• Often involves surveys, observations, or case studies

  • E.g., conducting a survey to determine the average age, gender, and income of a target market

Correlational Research

• Type of Quantitative Research

• Investigate the relationship between two or more variables

• Often involves statistical analysis to determine the strength and direction of the relationship

  • E.g., examining the relationship between hours of study and exam scores

Causal-comparative Research (quasi-experimental)

• Type of Quantitative Research

• Explores cause-and-effect relationships without full experimental control

• Compares group based on pre-existing conditions

  • E.g., Comparing the academic performance of students from public and private school

Experimental Research

• Type of Quantitative Research

• Establishes cause-and-effect relationships through controlled manipulation of variables

• Involves random assignment of participants to experimental and control groups

  • E.g., Testing the effectiveness of a new drug by comparing a treatment group to a placebo group

Ethnography

• Type of Qualitative Research

• To understand a culture or social group in depth

• Participant observation, interviews, document analysis

  • E.g., studying the daily lives of a specific indigenous community to understand their traditions and beliefs

Phenomenology

• Type of Qualitative Research

• Describe the lived experiences of individuals

• In-depth interviews, focus groups, reflective journals

  • E.g., exploring the experiences of people who have recovered from a serious illness

Grounded Theory

• Type of Qualitative Research

• Develop a theory based on data collected from the field

• Constant comparative analysis, theoretical sampling

  • E.g., studying the process of how people decide to quit smoking

Case Study

• Type of Qualitative Research

• Examine an individual, group, or event in depth

• Interviews, observations, document analysis

  • E.g., analyzing the impact of a new educational program on a specific school

Narrative Research

• Type of Qualitative Research

• Understand people’s lives through their stories

• In-depth interviews, life histories, autobiographies

  • E.g., exploring the life stories of immigrants to understand their experiences

Discourse Analysis

• Type of Qualitative Research

• Examine how language is used to construct meaning

• Text analysis, conversation analysis

  • E.g., analyzing political speeches to understand how language is used to persuade

Content Analysis

• Type of Qualitative Research

• Systematically analyze text, images, or other media

• Coding and categorizing data

• E.g., studying news articles to identify trends in reporting on climate change

Beneficence & Nonmaleficence

• Core ethical principle establish by the APA

• Psychologists strive to benefit those with whom they work and to do no harm

• They weigh the potential benefits against the potential risks of their research

  • E.g., carefully considering the potential risks and benefits of a study involving stress or anxiety

Fidelity & Responsibility

• Core ethical principle establish by the APA

• Psychologists establish relationships of trust with those with whom they work

• They are aware of their professional and scientific responsibilities to society and to the field of psychology

  • E.g., maintaining confidentiality of participant data and honoring commitments made to participants

Integrity

• Core ethical principle establish by the APA

• Psychologists seek to promote accuracy, honesty, and truthfulness in science, teaching, and practice

  • E.g., reporting research findings accurately and without fabrication or falsification

Justice

• Core ethical principle establish by the APA

• Psychologists recognize that fairness and justice entitle all persons to access to and benefit from the contributions of psychology and to equal quality in the processes of psychological care, education, and research

  • E.g., ensuring that research participants are representative of the population and that benefits and burdens are distributed fairly

Respect for People’s Rights & Dignity

• Core ethical principle establish by the APA

• Psychologists respect the dignity and worth of all people, and the rights of individuals to privacy, confidentiality, and self-determination

• E.g., obtaining informed consent from research participants and protecting their privacy

Informed Consent

• Ethical considerations in research

• Participants must be fully informed about the research, including its purpose, procedures, risks, and benefits, before agreeing to participate

Voluntary Participation

• Ethical considerations in research

• Participants must be free to decline or withdraw from the study at any time without penalty

Debriefing

• Ethical considerations in research

• Participants should be informed about the true nature of the study after it is completed, if necessary

Confidentiality

• Ethical considerations in research

• Researchers must protect the privacy of participants and keep their data confidential

Deception

• Ethical considerations in research

• The use of deception in research is generally discouraged, but may be justified under certain conditions. If used, participants must be debriefed as soon as possible

Harm & Risk

• Ethical considerations in research

• Researchers must minimize potential harm to participants and weigh the risks against the potential benefits of the study

Animal Welfare

• Ethical considerations in research

• When using animals in research, psychologists must ensure their humane treatment and minimize discomfort, pain, and suffering

Institutional Review Board (IRB) Approval

Most research involving human or animal subjects requires approval from an IRB before it can begin

Copyright

The exclusive, legal right to use, duplicate, sell, edit or exploit an image

Creative commons

A set of licenses that allows people to use, share, edit, or sell an image without permission, but with copyrighted restrictions

Public Domain

An image whose copyright has expired, is no longer protected by copyright, and is available to use for any purpose by any person at any time

Fair Use

Using copyrighted material without permission by assuming reasonable, non-commercial use that typically benefits the greater good

Copyright in Research

• Refers to the legal protection afforded to original research outputs.

• This includes anything from research papers, data sets, software, and even research methodologies

Ownership

• A key point for researchers

• Researchers typically own the copyright to their original research work