Key Rhetorical and Logical Fallacies in Argumentation: Definitions and Examples

Argument

a persuasive discourse, a coherent and considered movement from a claim to a conclusion

Rogerian Arguments

based on the assumption that having a full understanding of an opposing position is essential to responding to it persuasively and refuting it in a way that is accommodating rather than alienating

claim

It states the argument's main idea or position.

How does a claim differ from a topic or subject?

A claim needs to be arguable.

Claims of Fact

assert that something is true or not true

Claims of Value

argues that something is good or bad, right or wrong

Claims of Policy

proposes a change

closed thesis

a statement of the main idea of the argument that also previews the major points the writer intends to make

open thesis

one that does not list all the points the writer intends to cover in an essay

counterargument thesis

a summary of the counterargument, usually qualified by although or but, precedes the writer's opinion

logical fallacy

potential vulnerabilities or weaknesses in an argument

Red Herring

when a speaker skips to a new and irrelevant topic in order to avoid the topic of discussion

ad hominem

Latin for "to the man," this fallacy refers to the specific diversionary tactic of switching the argument from the issue at hand to the character of the other speaker.

faulty analogy

inaccurate or inconsequential comparisons between objects or concepts

either/or fallacy

A person provides only two possible options or sides, without considering all other possible choices.

straw man fallacy

a speaker chooses a deliberately poor or oversimplified example in order to ridicule and refute an opponent's viewpoint

Hasty Generalization

A fallacy in which a conclusion is not logically justified by sufficient or unbiased evidence.

Circular Reasoning

A fallacy in which the argument repeats the claim as a way to provide evidence.

first-hand evidence

something you know, whether it's from personal experience, anecdotes you've heard from others, observations, or your general knowledge of events

Anecdotes

One's personal experience you've observed or been told about that appeals to Pathos(Emotion)

current events

Access to first hand experiences and observations, these observations can be used as evidence to support an argument

second-hand evidence

Evidence that is accessed through research, reading, and investigation. It includes factual and historical information, expert opinion, and quantitative data.

What does 'post hoc ergo propter hoc' mean in Latin?

'After which therefore because of which.'

post hoc ergo propter hoc

It is incorrect to claim that something is a cause just because it happened earlier. Correlation does not imply causation

appeal to false authority

This fallacy occurs when someone who has no expertise to speak on an issue is cited as an authority.

Quantitative Evidence

Quantitative evidence includes things that can be measured, cited, counted, or otherwise represented in numbers

bandwagon appeal

The argument that since something is popular or everybody is doing it, so should you.

alliteration

repetition of the same sound beginning several words or syllables

allusion

brief reference to a person, event or place

anaphora

repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of successive phrases, clauses, or lines

antimetabole

repetition of words in reverse order

antithesis

opposition or contrast of ideas or words in the same sentence

asyndeton

omission of conjunctions between coordinate phrases, clauses or words

cumulative sentence

sentence that completes the main idea at the beginning of the sentence and then builds and adds on

hortative sentence

urges, entreats, implores, or calls to action

imperative sentence

used to command or enjoin

juxtaposition

placement of two things closely together to emphasize similarities or differences

metaphor

compares two things without using like or as

oxymoron

paradoxical juxtaposition of words that seem to contradict one another

parallelism

similarity of structure in a pair or series of related words, phrases, or clauses

periodic sentence

main clause is withheld until the end

personification

attribution of a likely quality to an inanimate object or an idea

rhetorical question

figure of speech in the form of a question posed for rhetorical effect rather than for the purpose of getting an answer

synedoche

figure of speech that uses a part to represent the whole

zeugma

use of two different words in a grammatically similar way that produces different, often incongruous, meanings