Reaction, Revolution, and Nationalism in 19th Century Europe

Economic Liberalism

Valued laissez-faire government; individuals direct the economy

Thomas Malthus

Economic Liberalist; argued against interference with the laws of nature/economy as it helped prevent over population and starvation

"Iron Law of Wages"

Increase of population -> more workers -> lower wages (and vice versa); raising wages only perpetuated the cycle

Political Liberalism

Valued protecting natural rights, religious toleration, constitutional/limited governments, checks and balances, etc.

John Stuart Mill

Political Liberalist; argued for freedom of speech and women's rights

Nationalism

Pride in one's country; contributed to of Revolutions of 1820-1830s and 1848, as well as German and Italian unification

Self-determination

Right for an ethnic group to govern themselves

Socialism

Valued social equality, cooperation, and harmony and wished to eliminate the competitive capitalist spirit from the Industrial Revolution (became violent in its later revolutionary form)

Charles Fourier

Socialist; wanted small communities (Phalansteries) where people would live and work together for mutual benefit

Robert Owen

Was able to bring Charles Fourier's communal ideas to life, but was ultimately unsuccessful

Louis Blanc

Argued for government assistance in manufacturing -> National Workshops

Flora Tristan

Argued for gender equality; mixed utopian socialism with feminism

Anarchism

Argued for the dissolve of all existing institutions in order to free society of corruption (later became violent with public "demonstrations")

May Day

International labor day; marked by strikes and mass labor demonstrations

Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels

Wrote the Communist Manifesto, which became one of the most important political treaties in Modern European history

Proletariats

Industrial working class; The Communist Manifesto predicted that they would rise up against the bourgeoise, thus creating a classless society

The Whigs

British landed class; made concessions to reform in order to avoid revolution from the industrial leaders/upper middle class that were previously excluded during the Industrial Revolution

Reform Act of 1832

Created property in urban areas, which allowed more people (especially the upper middle class) to meet land requirements needed to join parliament

Poor Law of 1834

Sent unemployed poor people to workhouses to essentially torture them into finding work

Anti-Corn League

Helped get Corn Laws repealed; aimed to lower bread prices for workers

Alexander I

Russian tsar; originally an "enlightened monarch" but became reactionary, instilling more conservative policies, after the French Revolution

Northern Union

Secret Society in Russia made of aristocrats (who had served in Napoleonic wars) and intellectuals; wanted constitutional monarchy and abolition of serfdom

Charles X

French king who issued the July ordinances and later fled the country because of the July Revolution

July Ordinances

French law that placed rigid press censorship, dissolved legislative assembly, and reduced electorate

Louis Phillipe

"Bourgeoisie King", constitutional monarch; took power after the July Revolution and gave power to the upper middle class, but didn't implement as many liberal reforms as revolutionists were hoping for

Party of Movement

French party; wanted to make reforms to the government

Party of Resistance

French Party; believed the government needed no further changes, favored interests of the wealthy, and dominated the legislature

What were the Revolution and Outcomes of 1820-1830s

- Greek War for Independence: successful, given support from strong European powers in order to weaken the Ottomans

- Belgian Revolution: Successful

- Decemberalist Revolt in Russia: Unsuccessful, overwhelmed by the Russian Military

- Polish Rebellion: Unsuccessful, overwhelmed by the Russian Military

- July Revolution in France: Mostly unsuccessful, they got a constitutional king, but didn't get their desired policies implemented

Why were most revolts in the 1820s-1830s unsuccessful?

1. Lacked forces strong enough to combat strong European powers

2. Revolutionist groups were often divided (different minorities, not enough wide-spread support, etc.)

National Workshops

established by Louis Blanc; cooperative factories for the unemployed, became costly for the government to support

Provisional Government

Temporary Government (ex. French Government after Louis-Phillipe left, run by republicans)

Charles Louis Napoleon (Napoleon III)

Became president after France's provisional government created a new constitution, reestablishing himself as emperor and made reforms like: economic growth, construction of hospitals, free medicine, etc. (prevented tension with the working class)

German Confederation

Association of German states established at the Congress of Vienna after the Napoleonic wars

Frederick William IV

Prussian king who agreed to abolish censorship, establish a new constitution, and work for German unification

Frankfurt Assembly

Middle class dominated; aimed to (but failed) to unify Germany and claimed to be the leading government of all of Germany

"Big Germany" vs. "Small Germany"

Groups divided by whether Austria should have a place in the new German nation

Louis Kossuth

Revolutionist who helped Hungary become independent from Austria for a short while

General Alfred Windisch Graetz

Austrian general who used military force to suppress revolutions in Vienna and Czech areas

Francis Joseph I

Austrian king who restored Hungary to the Austrian empire with Russian assistance

Risorgimento

Italian movement aiming to unite Italy

Giuseppe Mazzini

Italian nationalist; created the Young Italy organization, urging for a united Italian Republic ("The Heart")

Baron Haussman

Renovated medieval Paris to a more modern city with broader streets (broader streets made it easier to suppress rebellion)

Legislative Corps

Representative body under Napoleon III; given more power/freedom

Why did each country join the Crimean War?

1. Ottomans - Political concerns, trying to maintain power

2. Russia - religious influence, territory ambitions, trade and strategic concerns

3. Britain - Political concerns (balance of power), Trade and strategic concerns

4. France - Religious influence, political concerns (restore power lost during the Concert of Vienna)

Dardanelles

Sea trading route that connected East and West Europe; valuable trading an military passage that Russia hoped to gain in the Crimean war

Treaty of Paris (1856)

Ended Crimean War; Demilitarized the Black Sea and halts Russian Expansion in the Balkans

Florence Nightingale

British female nurse, helped improve sanitary conditions during the Crimean War -> nursing became a profession of trained, middle-class women

What were some results of the Crimean War? (3)

1. Russia was greatly weakened

2. Exposed Russia's lack of military power and industrialization/overall progress

3. Austria was left without friends/allies for remaining neutral

What were causes of the Revolutions in 1848? (3)

1. Poor economic condition; "The Hungry 40s" (ex. Irish Potato Famine, dependence on staple crops, and crop failure)

2. Frustration at slow political change (ex. Universal Male Suffrage still not achieved)

3. Unfulfilled nationalist aspirations from the Revolutions of 1820-1830s

Why was the Crimean War a turning point? (3)

1. 1st modern conflict (modern weapons, tactics, documentation, etc.)

2. Large death toll created developments in nursing

3. Showed general unpreparedness for war, creating a basis for militarism and arms race

Camillo di Cavour

"North Head", diplomat, Piedmont Prime minister, Realpolitik; attempted to fight back Austrian forces with French help (Napoleon III withdrew early) and tried to prevent conflict with larger powers

Giuseppe Garibaldi

"South Sword", Military leader; was able to annex Sicily and Naples + created a union with Piedmont to create a centralized government

Victor Emanuel II

King of as Italy began to unify

Zolverein

German customs union formed by Prussia in 1834; increased trade and Prussian power by eliminating tolls on rivers and roads among membered states

King William I

Strengthened Prussian military to help Prussia Maintain power, first Kaiser of the 2nd German Empire

Otto Von Bismarck

Realpolitik; isolated Austria using the Danish War, helped unify Germany, created social welfare policies lives (ex. accident, sickness, disability benefits) to try to prevent the spread of socialism

Danish War (1864)

Prussia and Austria fought together and defeated the Danes trying to add 2 largely German duchies to Denmark -> Austria and Prussia split the 2 duchies, but Bismarck later used the duchies to create friction and provide a reason for war with Austria (laying the foundation for Austrian isolation)

Austro-Prussian War (1866)

Prussian military overwhelmed Austrians; resulted in the North German Confederation to be created and allowed Venetia to be annexed and join Italy

Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871)

Resulted in the end of Napoleon III's reign and the unification of Southern and Northern Germany

Why was Northern and Southern Germany originally divided?

Catholic Southern Germany vs. Protestant Northern Germany

Mary Shelley

Author of Frankenstein; romanticism, gothic literature, warned the dangers of science trying to conquer nature

William Wordsworth

Romantic poet; held nature to be sacred and a source of knowledge

Caspar David Friedrich

German romantic painter; portrayed mysticism of nature

J.M.W. Turner

English romantic artist; showed industrial encroachment on nature, forerunner of impressionism

Eugene Delacroix

French romantic artist; used dramatic movement and color (ex. The Death of Sardanapalus)

What did Romanticism emphasize?

Emotion, sentiment, heroism, nature, the strange/extraordinary, individualism

How did Romanticism reflect the time period? (1800-1850s)

- Nationalist passions following the Napoleonic Wars

- Anti-industrialist sentiments

- Responses to rationalism in the Age of Science

What did Romanticism result in?

- Revival of medieval gothic architecture

- gothic literature

- Revival of Christianity (appealing to emotional aspects of religion)

What did Realism emphasize?

Secular life, ordinary people, photographic accuracy, observation, examination of social questions

How did Realism reflect the time period? (1850-1870s)

- Showed the hard labor of industrial workers/working class

- Rejection of Romanticism

- New Scientific discoveries created more rational and secular perceptions of life

What did Realism result in?

Greater attention towards the lives of the working and middle class

What did Modernism emphasize?

Impressions/feelings associated with the world, rejection of portraying things accurately

- Impressionism, Post-Impressionism, cubism, naturalism

How did Modernism reflect the time period? (1870-1920s)

- Uncertainty of what is reality -> emphasis on not portraying things accurately

- Focus on individual perception of reality

Louis Pasteur

French chemist; formulated the germ theory of disease -> modern medical practices (ex. vaccines)

Charles Darwin

Created the principle of natural selection and evolution (should know this from AP Bio :)

Robert Koch

German physician; identified specific organisms that caused disease

Joseph Lister

Found disinfectants that prevented infections in wounds, making hospitals less susceptible to the spread of disease

Elizabeth Blackwell

Respected woman in medicine who was admitted into a college (although by mistake)

Gustave Courbet

Realist artist; depicted dreary labor, lower class workers, etc.

Jean-Francois Millet

Realist artist with romantic traits; depicted rural life/labor

Marie Curie

Discovered radium, showing that atoms have subatomic particles called electrons and protons

Max Planck

Proved that energy is radiated from bodies discontinuously rather than continuously

Albert Einstein

Created the theory of relativity

Friedrich Nietzsche

French political theorist; used nonrational thought to advocate revolutionary socialism and general strike (most/all workers go on strike)

Sigmund Freud

Austrian; created basis of psychoanalysis and inner workings of the conscious and subconscious mind

Social Darwinism

Belief that only the fittest/"superior" humans survive -> racism, ethnic superiority, etc.

Volkish thought

The belief that German culture is superior and must "save" other races

Anticlericalism

Opposition to the power of churches or clergy in politics; common in liberal nations

Emile Zola

French naturalist writer; showed how alcoholism and different environments could affect lives

Claude Monet

Impressionist painter; captured fleeting moments of light, water, and atmosphere with dynamic and colorful brushstrokes

Paul Cezanne

Post-Impressionist; used underlying geometric shapes to portray things

Vincent van Gogh

Post-Impressionist; used color and dynamic brushstroke to convey emotion and inner thoughts

Pablo Picasso

Developed cubism; used geometric designs to recreate reality from his own mind