Psychology Unit 1 Vocab/People Review

Psychology

The scientific study of behavior and mental processes.

Empiricism

The view that knowledge originates in experience and that science should, therefore, rely on observation and experimentation.

Structuralism

Early school of though promoted by Wundt and Titchener; used introspection to reveal the structure of the human mind.

Introspection

Examination of a persons mental and emotional processes.

Functionalism

Early school of thought promoted by James and influenced by Darwin; explored how mental and behavioral processes function-how they enable the organism to adapt, survive, and flourish.

Behaviorism

The view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).

Experimental Psychology

The study of behavior and thinking using the experimental method.

Humanistic Psychology

A historically significant perspective that emphasized the growth potential of healthy people.

Cognitive Neuroscience

The interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language).

Nature-Nurture Issue

The longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors. Today’s science sees traits and behaviors arising from the interaction of nature and nurture.

Natural Selection

The principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to reproduction and survival will most likely be passes on to succeeding generations.

Levels of Analysis & Biopsychosocial Approach

The differing complementary views, from biological to psychological to social-cultural, for analyzing any given phenomenon. An integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis.

Behavioral Psychology

The scientific study of observable behavior, and it’s explanation by principles of learning.

Biological Psychology

The scientific study of the links between biological (genetic, neural, hormonal) and psychological processes.

Cognitive Psychology

The scientific study of all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.

Evolutionary Psychology

The study of the evolution of behavior and mind, using principles of natural selection.

Psychodynamic Psychology

A branch of psychology that studies how unconscious drives and conflicts influence behavior and uses that information to treat people with psychological disorder.

Social-Cultural Psychology

the study of how situations and cultures affect our behavior and thinking.

Psychometrics

the scientific study of the measurement of human abilities, attitudes, and traits.

Basic Research

pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base.

Applied Research

scientific study that aims to solve practical problems.

Developmental Psychology

a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span.

Educational Psychology

the study of how psychological processes affect and can enhance teaching and learning.

Personality Psychology

the study of an individual’s characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting.

Social Psychology

 the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another.

Industrial-Organizational (I/O) Psychology

the application of psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human behavior in workplaces.

Human Factors Psychology

an I/O psychology subfield that explores how people and machines interact and how machines and physical environments can be made safe and easy to use.

Counseling Psychology

a branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living (often related to school, work, or marriage) and in achieving greater well-being.

Clinical Psychology

a branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders.

Psychiatrist

a branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who sometimes provide medical (for example, drug) treatments as well as psychological therapy.

Positive Psychology

the scientific study of human functioning, with the goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities to thrive.

Community Psychology

a branch of psychology that studies how people interact with their social environments and how social institutions affect individuals and groups.

Hindsight Bias

the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it. (Also known as the I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon.)

Critical Thinking

thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, assesses the source, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions.

Theory

an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events.

Hypothesis

a testable prediction, often implied by a theory.

Operational Definition

a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures (operations) used in a research study.

Replication

repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances.

Case Study

a descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles.

Naturalistic Observation

observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation.

Survey

a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group.

Sampling Bias

a flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample.

Population

all those in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn.

Random Sample

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion.

Correlation

a measure of the extent to which two variables change together, and thus of how well either variable predicts the other.

Correlation Coefficient

a statistical index of the relationship between two variables (from -1 to 1).

Scatterplot

a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables. The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation (little scatter indicates high correlation).

Illusory Correlation

the perception of a relationship where none exists.

Random Assignment

a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable). By random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant variables.

Double-Blind Procedure

an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies.

Placebo Effect

Results based on expectation of the treatment.

Independent Variable

the experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.

Dependent Variable

the outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.

Confounding Variable

a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment.

Validity

the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to. (See also content validity and predictive validity.

Descriptive Statistics

numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups. Includes measures of central tendency and measures of variation.

Mode

the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution.

Mean

the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores.

Median

the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it.

Skewed Distribution

a representation of scores that lack symmetry around their average value.

Range

the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution.

Normal Curve (Distribution)

a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean (about 68 percent fall within one standard deviation of it) and fewer and fewer near the extremes.

Inferential Significance

numerical data that allow one to generalize—to infer from sample data the probability of something being true of a population.

Statistical Significance

a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance.

Culture

the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next.

Informed Consent

an ethical principle that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate.

Debriefing

the post-experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants.

Socrates & Plato

Ancient Greece, the philosopher-teacher Socrates and his student Plato concluded that mind is separable from body and continues after the body dies, and that knowledge is innate—born within us

Aristotle

Plato’s student; derived principles from careful observations. He said knowledge is not preexisting,  instead it grows from the experiences stored in our memories.

Francis Bacon

One of the founders of modern science/scientific method. His influence lingers in the experiments of today’s psychological science

Rene Descartes

Dissected animals and concluded that the fluid in the brain’s cavities contained “animal spirits” that flowed from the brain through what we call the nerves (which he thought were hollow) to the muscles, provoking movement.

John Locke

argued that the mind at birth is a tabula rasa—a “blank slate”—on which experience writes, helped form modern empiricism.

Empiricism

the theory that all knowledge is derived from sense-experience.

Wilhelm Wundt

Structuralist, established the first psychology experimental laboratory and was was seeking to measure “atoms of the mind”—the fastest and simplest mental processes

Edward Titchener

Structuralist, Wundt’s student, aimed to discover the structural elements of mind using introspection.

G. Stanley Hall

Established the first formal U.S. psychology laboratory, at Johns Hopkins University, 1883

William James

Functionalist, assumed that thinking developed because it was adaptive—it contributed to our ancestors’ survival. Consciousness serves a function.

Mary Whiton Calkins

First female APA president in 1905.

Margaret Floy Washburn

First female psychology PhD in 1894.

Sigmund Freud

Founder of psychoanalysis, personality theorist.

John. B Watson

Behaviorist

B.F. Skinner

Behaviorist

Carl Rogers & Abraham Maslow

Founders of humanistic psychology.

Charles Darwin

Evolutionary theorist. 

Dorothea Dix

Helped reform inhumane treatments for psychology disorders