Biology I Final

gene

a segment of DNA that contains the information required to produce a product that functions in the organism

alleles

different versions of agene that have slight variations in the DNA sequence found in other alleles of the same gene

transcription

the process that creates an RNA molecule from information stored in agene

translation

the process that uses the information in messenger RNA (mRNA) to synthesize a protein

chromosome

a complex of DNA-binding proteins and DNA. they aer circular in most bacteria and archaea and linear in eukaryotes

haploid number

the number of different types of chromosomes present in a cell. it’s indicated with an n. humans have n=23

ploidy

the number of each type of chromosome present in a call. its written as a number before the n. humans are 2n

haploid

having one of each type of chromosome

diploid

having two of each type of chromosome

homologous chromosomes (homologs)

different versions of the same chromosome type

replicated chromosome

a chromosome comprised of two identical DNA molecules joined together

sister chromatids

the identical copies in a replicatd chromosome

Which enzymes are needed more frequently on the lagging strand compared to the leading strand?

ligase, primase

exonuclease

cut internally within a strand

endonuclease

cut nucleotides from the ends

what do crossover events do?

create genetic diversity

how do immune cells build antibodies?

they used information stored in genes, which is then used to make temporary information in RNA

mitosis prophase

cell prepares for division by condensing its genetic material into visible chromosomes

mitosis metaphase

where chromosomes, which have been duplicated and are visible, line up along the center of the cell at the metaphase plate

mitosis anaphase

sister chromatids separate and are pulled to opposite ends of the cell by the spindle fibers

mitosis telephase

during which the cell's separated chromosomes arrive at opposite poles, and two new nuclei reform around them

ploidy

chromosome

a DNA molecule — circular or linear, depending on the species

ribosome

a molecular machine consisting of RNA and proteins that is the site of protein synthesis

cytoskeleton functions

structural support, transport of materials, and movement in some species

flagellum

a long, flexible structure that extends from the cell and whips or rotates to propel the cell through water

which one has a nucleus, eukaryotes or prokaryotes?

eukaryotes

what do mitochondrion do?

“burns” sugars to provide energy for the cell

what are the lineages of prokaryotes?

archaea and bacteria

vacuole

an organelle that stores key molecules; very prominment in most plant cells

chloroplast

an organelle that contains the molecular machinery required for photosynthesis

endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

eukaryotic organelle that forms a branching network of narrow tubes and narrow sac. the place where proteins, membrane lipids, and other molecules are synthesized and/or processed. 

what makes a rough and smooth er?

if it’s rough it has ribosomes attached, if smooth there are no ribosomes

golgi

organelle comprised of stacked, flattened sacs, where proteins and other molecules are processed and packaged for shipment to destinations

actin filaments

small-diameter cytoskeletal fibers made of subunits of the protein actin

intermediate filaments

cytokskeletal fibers whose size is intermediate between those of actin filaments and microtubules and can be made from a variety of protein subunits

microtubules

large diameter, hollow cytoskeletal elements made of pairs of the proteins alpha tubulin and beta tubulin

endomembrane system

collection of machines, cytoskeletal components, and organelles that together produce, process, and transport proteins and lipids destined for organelles, the cell membrane, or outside the cell

signal sequence

a series of amino acidsat the start of the protein that allows that protein to enter the endomembrane system

motor protein

a protein that functions in cell movement through shape changes caused by phosphorylation or dephosphorylation

phosphorylation

the addition of a phosphate group (PO₄^3-) to a protein or other molecule. In most cases, the phosphate group comes from ATP. Dephosphorylation is the reverse process

what does it mean for the energy if a reaction is spontaneous?

the reactants have higher free energy than the products

what does it mean for the energy if a reaction is nonspontaneous?

the reactants have lower free energy than the products

electrical energy

energy related to interactions among charged particles

thermal energy

the energy of motion in ions and molecules, measured as temperature

potential energy

energy that is related to an object’s position

chemical reaction

conversion of substances into other substances via breaking and forming chemical bonds

free energy

the total energy available to do work — a combination of entropy and thermal and potential energy

energetic coupling

a phosphorylation reaction that makes a nonspontaneous reaction spontaneous, because it raises the free energy of the reactants

which cytoskeletal elements have the most diversity in terms of protein composition?

intermediate filaments

how are microtubules similar to actin filaments?

both are dynamic, with the ability to grow or shrink

which organelles contain DNA that is structurally similar to bacterial DNA?

mitochondria and chloroplast

endergonic reaction

one that results in an increase in free energy; another way of referring to a nonspontaneous reaction

exergonic reaction

one that results in a decrease in free energy other way of referring to a spontaneous reaction

activation energy

the amount of energy required to get a chemical reaction through its transition state

transition state

during a chemical reaction, an intermediate state where old bonds are being broken but new bonds have not yet formed

enzyme

a protein that catalyzes a chemical reaction

active site

the place on a enzyme where a reaction is catalyzed

redox (reduction-oxidation) reactions

chemical reactions involving the gain (reduction) or loss (oxidation) of an electron

cellular respiration

a multi-step process that uses energy captured from carbon oxidation to power ATP production via an electron transport chain and ATP synthase

electron transport chain (ETC)

a series of machines that uses an electric current to pump protons across a membrane, establishing a proton gradient that is then used to generate ATP. When the ETC uses ocygen as an electron acceptor, ATP production via the combined action of the ETC and ATP synthase is called oxidative phosphorylation

ATP synthase

the multi-protein machine that transforms the kinetic energy in a flow of protons to a mechanical energy that catalyzes the addition of a phosphate group to ADP to form ATP

glycolysis

a sequence of ten enzyme-catalyzed reactions that begins with glucose and ends with pyruvate, producing 2 ATP and 2 NADH per molecule of glucose

pyruvate processing

a serires of enzyme-catalyzed reactions that begins with acetyl-CoA, completes the oxidation of glucose to CO₂, and produces ATP, NADH, and FADH₂

NADH₂, FADH₂, Q

molecules that function as electron carriers during cellular respiration, meaning that they transport electrons to or within the electron transport chain

photosynthesis

a process that transforms light energy into chemical energy — meaning the potential energy found in electrons that participate in covalent bonds, usually in sugars or other carbohydrates

pigment

a molecule that absorbs specific wavelengths of light

chlorophyll

the primary photosynthetic pigment in land plants and most algae

photosystem II (psII)

a complex of molecular machines that acquire electerons by oxidizing water, use the energy in sunlight to excite those electron carrier that feeds the electron transport chain, leading to ATP production by ATP synthase

photosystem I (psI)

a complex of molecular machines that receive low-energy electrons at the end of the electron transport chain, use the energy in sunlight to excite those electrons to a high-energy state, and pass them on to electron carriers that either feed the electron transport chain or an enzyme that catalyzes the reduction of NADP+ to NADPH

calvin cycle

a series of reactions that results in carbon from CO2 being “fixed” or reduced, and used to synthesize sugars

rubisco

the enzyme that catalyzes the reduction of CO₂ and its incorporation into sugars

stomata

openings in stems and leaves that allow gas exchange via diffusion along their concentration gradients — most importantly, CO₂ to enter and O₂ to leave

guard cells 

specialized epidermal cells that regulate the size of stomata depending on enviornmental conditions

what are the input(s) in order for photosystem II (PSII) to work in photosynthesis?

H₂O

what are the input(s) in order for photosystem I (PSI) to work in photosynthesis?

NADP²

what are the input(s) in order for ATP synthase to work in photosynthesis?

ADP and inorganic phosphate (P_i)

what are the input(s) in order for calvin cycle to work in photosynthesis?

CO₂, ATP, NADPH

what are the output(s) of photosystem II (PSII) in photosynthesis?

O₂

what are the output(s) of photosystem I (PSI) in photosynthesis?

NADPH

what are the output(s) of ATP synthase in photosynthesis?

ATP

what are the output(s) of the calvin cycle in photosynthesis?

carbohydrates, ADP and inorganic phosphate (P_i), NADP⁺

what happens to atoms in CO₂ molecules during photosynthesis?

the carbon atoms end up in the carbohydrate product, and the carbon atoms will gain electrons and be reduced

when C changes from being in a polar bond with O to a non-polar bond with a C or H what happens?

it becomes reduced

when O changes from being in a polar bond in H₂O to a nonpolar bond in O₂, what happens?

it becomes oxidized

what about enzymes and substrates?

enzymes can only use specific molecules as substrates

in cellular respiration what does glycolysis produce?

ATP and NADH

in cellular respiration what does pyruvate processing produce?

acetyl CoA, NADH, CO₂

in cellular respiration what does the citric acid cycle proudce?

FADH₂, NADH, CO_2, ATP

in cellular respiration what does the ETC and ATP synthase produce?

water, ATP

in phospholipids when one of the legs are bent is it unsaturated or saturated?

unsaturated

during pyruvate processing, pyruvate is oxidized to what?

acetyl-coA

in the ETC what does it oxidize?

NADH back to NAD+

what structure is required for proteins to enter the endomembrane system?

signal sequence

in order for a nonspontaenous reaction to be couple with a spontaeneous reaction, does the spontaenous reaction have to have a lower or higher free energy?

higher free energy

how does an enzyme affect the activation energy of a chemical reaction?

interactions between reactants and specific R-groups in the enzyme stabilize the transition state, which reduces activation energy

which process generates the most reduced electron carriers for the electron transport chain in cellular respiration?

citric acid cycle

how many phospholipid bilayers would you expect to find in a bacterial cell?

1

how many phospholipid bilayers would you expect to find in a eukaryotic cell?

too many to count