Key Concepts in Personality and Social Psychology

What is the focus of the idiographic approach in personality psychology?

The idiographic approach focuses on examining individual persons in detail to identify the unique features of each individual's personality.

What is a strength of the idiographic approach?

It often involves in-depth studies of individuals, such as biographies or case studies.

What are some weaknesses of the idiographic approach?

1. It can be inefficient, as studying a large number of people in detail is too expensive and time-consuming. 2. It may miss important aspects of personality by focusing on what stands out in one person. 3. It does not allow for the establishment of general laws about personality.

What is the nomothetic approach in personality research?

It involves studying certain features of the personalities of many different people and comparing them to figure out general rules about personality.

What is a strength of the nomothetic approach?

It allows researchers to find general laws of personality.

What are the three types of reliability in measurement?

1. Internal-Consistency Reliability: correlation of items measuring the same characteristic. 2. Interrater Reliability: consistency between different raters' scores. 3. Test-Retest Reliability: consistency of scores across different measurement occasions.

What is content validity?

The extent to which the items of a measurement are relevant to the characteristic that the measurement is supposed to assess.

What is construct validity?

It includes convergent and discriminant validity, assessing how well a test measures the concept it is intended to measure.

What is convergent validity?

The correspondence with measures assessing similar characteristics (positive relations) or opposite characteristics (negative relations).

What is discriminant validity?

The correspondence with measures assessing characteristics unrelated to the one the measure is intended to assess.

What is criterion validity?

It refers to the relations with relevant outcome variables, also known as predictive validity.

What is reverse-coding in questionnaires?

A technique where agreement with certain items contributes to a low score on the overall scale, addressing acquiescence bias.

Why is reverse-coding used in scales?

To ensure that higher scores accurately indicate higher levels of the trait and to encourage participants to think carefully about their responses.

What is a self-report scale?

A structured method of measurement where individuals answer a predetermined set of questions about their own behaviors, thoughts, and feelings.

What is an observer report?

A method of assessing an individual's personality where someone who knows the target person well provides information about their behaviors, thoughts, and feelings.

When are self-reports likely to be more valid?

When assessing internal traits that are low in observability, in anonymous contexts that encourage honesty, when the trait is low in evaluativeness, and when the individual has good self-knowledge.

When are observer reports likely to be more valid?

When assessing external traits that are high in observability, when the observer knows the target person well, when the trait is highly evaluative, and when predicting behavior.

What is a personality trait?

Differences among individuals in a typical tendency to behave, think, or feel in conceptually related ways across various situations and over time.

What does it mean to say someone is 'high' on a given trait?

It indicates that the individual exhibits a strong tendency to behave, think, or feel in ways associated with that trait.

What are the Big 5 Personality Traits?

The Big 5 Personality Traits are Openness to Experience, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, and Neuroticism.

What does high Novelty Seeking behavior indicate?

Individuals high in Novelty Seeking might exhibit exploratory excitability, impulsiveness, extravagance, and disorderliness.

How do individuals high in Extraversion typically behave?

They tend to be talkative, lively, outgoing, and actively engage in social endeavors.

What characteristics are associated with people high in Conscientiousness?

They are typically organized, systematic, efficient, precise, thorough, and practical.

What traits are common in individuals high in Agreeableness?

They are generally sympathetic, kind, warm, cooperative, sincere, and compassionate.

How do individuals high in Emotional Stability behave?

They tend to be relaxed, unemotional, easy-going, and unexcitable.

What behaviors might individuals high in Neuroticism exhibit?

They might be moody, jealous, possessive, anxious, touchy, and high-strung.

What traits are associated with someone high in Honesty-Humility?

They are likely to be sincere, honest, faithful/loyal, modest/unassuming, and fair-minded.

What does Openness to Experience encompass?

It includes traits such as philosophicalness, complexity, creativity versus shallowness and conventionality.

What are the facets of Openness to Experience?

The facets are Fantasy, Aesthetics, Feelings, Actions, Ideas, and Values.

What does Conscientiousness include?

It includes traits such as organization, discipline, and thoroughness versus sloppiness, laziness, and unreliability.

What are the facets of Conscientiousness?

The facets are Competence, Order, Dutifulness, Achievement Striving, Self-Discipline, and Deliberation.

What traits are associated with Extraversion?

It includes talkativeness, liveliness, and outgoingness versus shyness, quietness, and passivity.

What are the facets of Extraversion?

The facets are Warmth, Gregariousness, Assertiveness, Activity, Excitement Seeking, and Positive Emotions.

What does Agreeableness encompass?

It includes traits such as kindness and gentleness versus rudeness and harshness.

What are the facets of Agreeableness?

The facets are Trust, Straightforwardness, Altruism, Compliance, Modesty, and Tender-Mindedness.

What does Neuroticism refer to?

It refers to moodiness, anxiety, and touchiness, indicating emotional instability.

What are the facets of Neuroticism?

The facets are Anxiety, Angry Hostility, Depression, Self-Consciousness, Impulsiveness, and Vulnerability.

Why is the Big 5 framework important for understanding human behavior?

It helps sort out confusion in personality models, provides a comprehensive structure for personality, and offers a common language for communication across studies.

How does the Big 5 framework assist researchers?

It allows researchers to measure personality more efficiently and thoroughly by mapping specific traits within the broader personality space.

What does HEXACO stand for?

HEXACO is a model of personality that includes six dimensions: Honesty-Humility, Emotionality, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, and Openness to Experience.

What traits are included in the Honesty-Humility dimension of HEXACO?

Traits include sincerity, honesty, faithfulness/loyalty, modesty/unassumingness, and fairness versus slyness, deceitfulness, greediness, pretentiousness, hypocrisy, boastfulness, and pompousness.

What traits characterize the Emotionality dimension in HEXACO?

Traits include emotionality, oversensitivity, sentimentality, fearfulness, anxiety, and vulnerability versus bravery, toughness, independence, self-assuredness, and stability.

What does the Extraversion dimension of HEXACO encompass?

Extraversion includes traits like social self-esteem, social boldness, sociability, and liveliness.

What traits are associated with Agreeableness in HEXACO?

Agreeableness involves traits such as forgivingness, gentleness, flexibility, and patience versus irritability and quarrelsomeness.

What traits are included in the Conscientiousness dimension of HEXACO?

Conscientiousness includes traits like organization, diligence, perfectionism, and prudence.

What does the Openness to Experience dimension in HEXACO encompass?

Openness to Experience includes traits such as aesthetic appreciation, inquisitiveness, creativity, and unconventionality.

What are the noteworthy group differences in HEXACO traits?

Noteworthy differences exist in Agreeableness and Emotionality, with HEXACO's Agreeableness including patience versus irritability, and Emotionality including sentimentality versus toughness.

How does HEXACO differ from the Big Five personality model?

HEXACO includes a sixth factor, Honesty-Humility, which is only modestly related to the Big Five factors, and some personality characteristics show stronger relations with HEXACO dimensions.

Do romantic partners tend to be similar in personality?

There is only a slight tendency for romantic partners to be similar in personality traits.

How do friends compare in personality similarity?

Friends show some similarity on specific personality dimensions, particularly Honesty-Humility and Openness to Experience.

What is the relationship between marital satisfaction and personality traits?

Marital satisfaction is modestly related to some aspects of personality in both oneself and one's spouse.

Is the similarity of personality traits between partners related to marital satisfaction?

The similarity or dissimilarity between partners on personality traits is nearly unrelated to levels of marital satisfaction.

What do observer reports reveal about personality?

Observer reports provide opinions based on behavior, thoughts, and feelings, which can be more objective than self-reports, though they may also include biases.

What are direct observations in the context of personality?

Direct observations involve peers observing behavior in natural settings, leading to inferences about personality traits based on the frequency and intensity of behaviors.

What is biodata in personality assessment?

Biodata refers to life outcome data that peers might use to infer aspects of personality, such as deducing industriousness from academic achievements.

How do friends perceive their own personality traits in relation to their friends?

People tend to perceive their friends as having personality trait levels similar to their own for Honesty-Humility and Openness to Experience.

What is the difference between perceived similarity and actual similarity among friends?

The perceived similarity in personality traits is greater than the actual similarity observed in studies.

What is the significance of the Emotional Stability factor in the Big Five model?

The Emotional Stability factor groups traits like patience versus irritability, contrasting with HEXACO's categorization.

What is the role of personality in shaping peer perceptions?

Personality influences how peers form opinions based on behavior, which can be more objective than self-reports.

What are the limitations of observer reports?

Observers might have biases or only see individuals in limited situations, which can affect their assessments.

What can direct observations indicate about a person's sociability?

The frequency of social interactions can lead to inferences about a person's sociability.

How can life outcomes be indicative of personality traits?

Life outcomes, such as academic achievements, can provide insights into traits like industriousness.

How can language use influence perceptions of personality?

Language use, including speech rate, pauses, utterance length, and vocal pitch, can lead peers to infer personality traits such as competence, sociability, trustworthiness, dominance, and emotional stability.

What role does nonverbal communication play in personality perception?

Nonverbal communication, including facial expressions, gestures, gaze, and posture, influences how personality is perceived and is often adjusted based on the desire to be liked.

How does physical appearance affect personality impressions?

Physical appearance, including attractiveness, can influence initial impressions of personality, with attractive individuals sometimes perceived as having more socially desirable traits.

What is the relationship between conscientiousness and health outcomes?

Individuals with lower levels of conscientiousness are more likely to engage in unhealthy behaviors such as smoking and substance abuse.

How does emotional stability relate to health behaviors?

Lower levels of emotional stability (the opposite of neuroticism) are linked to a higher likelihood of smoking and substance abuse.

What is the significance of activity level in predicting health?

A higher activity level is predictive of living longer.

How do hostility and dominance correlate with health risks?

Higher levels of hostility and dominance are associated with an increased probability of heart disease due to greater physiological reactions to stress.

What is the 'Type A' behavior pattern and its health implications?

The 'Type A' behavior pattern, characterized by competitiveness, impatience, and hostility, is linked to heart disease, with hostility being a key factor.

What does research suggest about childhood cheerfulness and mortality?

Childhood cheerfulness may be related to a lower risk of mortality later in life.

How do neurotransmitters shape personality?

Variations in neurotransmitter systems, such as dopamine and serotonin, can influence the development of social-emotional behaviors and temperament.

What is the link between the 5-HTT gene and emotional predispositions?

Individuals with a particular version of the 5-HTT gene are more susceptible to developing depression after stressful life events, indicating a genetic link to emotional predispositions.

How does the MOAO gene relate to personality traits?

Abused children with a specific allele of the MOAO gene are more likely to develop antisocial personality traits.

What role does dopamine play in personality development?

Dopamine is associated with motivated behavior and is crucial in maternal caregiving, as shown by increased activation in dopaminergic pathways in mothers with secure attachments.

How does serotonin influence aggressive responses?

Gene-controlled neurotransmitters like serotonin may explain why individuals with certain temperamental traits, such as low self-regulation, are more likely to respond aggressively.

What is the role of the amygdala in behavioral inhibition?

Research indicates that the amygdala in the limbic system plays a crucial role in behavioral inhibition, with inhibited children showing higher arousal in the amygdala when faced with new stimuli.

How do individual differences in brain structures relate to temperament?

They contribute to distinct behavioral styles considered part of temperament.

What brain region is associated with effortful control?

The frontal lobes, which are involved in executive functions like decision-making and inhibiting responses.

How does brain plasticity influence temperament and personality?

It allows for ongoing development and adaptation based on experiences, meaning environmental input can influence brain structure development.

What hormone is released in response to maternal stress and can affect infant development?

Cortisol, which can cross the placenta and impact the infant's brain and emotional development.

What role does oxytocin play in early child development?

It is crucial for social bonding, memory, affiliative behavior, and emotion regulation, particularly in mother-infant interactions.

What are the effects of male sex hormones on behavior?

They have strong effects on behaviors like play and aggression, which relate to broader aspects of temperament and potentially later personality.

What is the Behavioral Activation System (BAS) and its function?

The BAS drives approach motivation and sensitivity to reward, motivating individuals to seek out rewards.

What is the neurobiological basis of the Behavioral Activation System (BAS)?

It is linked to dopamine and norepinephrine pathways in the brain.

What personality traits are associated with a highly active BAS?

Impulsive, sensation-seeking, and optimistic.

What is the Behavioral Inhibition System (BIS) and its function?

The BIS drives avoidance motivation and sensitivity to punishment, motivating individuals to avoid negative stimuli.

What is the neurobiological basis of the Behavioral Inhibition System (BIS)?

It is linked to serotonin and GABA pathways in the brain.

What personality traits are associated with a highly active BIS?

Anxious, cautious, and prone to worry.

How does Cloninger's Theory relate neurotransmitters to personality dimensions?

Novelty Seeking (NS) is linked to dopaminergic systems, Harm Avoidance (HA) to serotonergic systems, and Reward Dependence (RD) to noradrenergic systems.

What is the nature of introversion according to Eysenck?

The notes do not provide specific details about Eysenck's view on introversion.

What are the two major dimensions of Hans Eysenck's theory?

Extraversion and neuroticism.

How is introversion typically characterized?

By a preference for quieter, less stimulating environments and a tendency towards reflection and solitary activities.

What empirical evidence supports Eysenck's ideas regarding personality traits?

Buss and Plomin's twin studies showed good correlations for Emotionality and Activity among identical twins, indicating a genetic component.

What does the term 'nature' refer to in the context of personality development?

Nature refers to processes controlled by our genes, including biological and inherited factors.

What is meant by 'nurture' in personality development?

Nurture encompasses environmental input and experiences such as upbringing, culture, and social interactions.

What did research find regarding the attachment behaviors of adopted children?

Adopted children's attachment behaviors were similar to those of biological children in the same family, highlighting the importance of the rearing environment.

What research designs are used to determine the influence of nature versus nurture on traits?

Twin studies comparing identical and non-identical twins raised together, studying identical twins raised apart, and adoption studies.

How can contrast and assimilation effects be overcome?

By increasing the distance between options, adding more options, and encouraging a focus on individual merits.

What does the phrase 'bad is stronger than good' refer to?

Negativity Bias, the tendency for negative events to have a greater impact on thoughts, feelings, and behaviors than positive ones.