PSY 2000 Exam 1

Cognitive psychology

The study of mental processes (e.g., perception, memory, language, reasoning) using behavioral experiments.

Cognitive neuroscience

The study of how cognitive processes are implemented in the brain, combining psychology with neuroscience methods.

Cognitive neuropsychology

The study of cognition through patterns of impairment in brain-damaged individuals.

Computational cognitive science

The study of cognition using formal models and computer simulations to explain mental processes.

Bottom-up processing

Data-driven processing that begins with sensory input and builds toward higher-level interpretation. (physical traits of stimuli)

Top-down processing

Concept-driven processing influenced by expectations, knowledge, and goals.

Serial processing

Processing in which steps occur one at a time.

Parallel processing

Processing in which multiple operations occur simultaneously.

Task processes

The specific cognitive operations required to perform a given task.

Ecological validity

The extent to which experimental findings generalize to real-world situations.

Implacable experimenter

The assumption that the experimenter applies task rules rigidly and consistently, regardless of participant behavior.

Paradigm specificity

The idea that results may depend heavily on the specific experimental task used.

Lesions

Areas of damaged brain tissue caused by injury, disease, or surgery.

Syndrome

A consistent cluster of symptoms resulting from brain damage.

Association

When two abilities are impaired or preserved together.

Dissociation

When one cognitive ability is impaired while another is spared.

Double dissociation

When two patients show opposite dissociations, providing strong evidence that two processes are independent.

Single-case study

An in-depth investigation of one individual, often with a unique brain lesion.

Case-series study

A study examining multiple patients with similar deficits or lesions.

Sulcus (plural: sulci)

A groove or fold in the cerebral cortex.

Gyrus (plural: gyri)

A raised ridge between sulci.

Dorsal

Toward the top of the brain.

Ventral

Toward the bottom of the brain.

Rostral

Toward the front (nose).

Posterior

Toward the back.

Lateral

Toward the sides.

Medial

Toward the midline.

Frontal lobe

Involved in planning, decision-making, motor control, and executive functions.

Temporal lobe

Involved in memory, language, and auditory processing.

Parietal lobe

Involved in spatial processing, attention, and somatosensation.

Occipital lobe

Primarily involved in vision.

Brain network organization

The idea that cognition arises from interactions among distributed brain regions.

Principle of cost control

The brain minimizes metabolic and wiring costs.

Principle of efficiency

The brain maximizes performance while minimizing resource use.

Techniques of studying the brain

Methods used to measure brain structure or function.

Single-unit recording

Recording electrical activity from individual neurons.

EEG (electroencephalography)

Measures electrical activity from the scalp.

ERPs (event-related potentials)

Time-locked EEG responses to specific stimuli or events.

MEG (magnetoencephalography)

Measures magnetic fields produced by neural activity.

MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)

Provides high-resolution images of brain structure.

fMRI (functional MRI)

Measures brain activity via blood flow changes.

efMRI

Event-related fMRI that measures responses to specific stimuli.

PET (positron emission tomography)

Uses radioactive tracers to measure brain metabolism.

BOLD signal

The Blood-Oxygen-Level-Dependent signal measured in fMRI.

TMS (transcranial magnetic stimulation)

Temporarily disrupts or stimulates brain regions using magnetic pulses.

rTMS

Repeated TMS that produces longer-lasting effects.

Meta-analysis

A statistical method that combines results from multiple studies.

Functional specialization

The idea that specific brain regions are specialized for particular functions.

Reverse inference

Inferring a mental process from brain activation (logically weak if overused).

Converging operations

Using multiple methods to test the same hypothesis.

Computational modelling

Using mathematical or computer models to explain cognitive processes.

Artificial intelligence (AI)

The creation of systems that perform tasks requiring intelligence.

Cognitive architecture

A theoretical framework describing the structure of the cognitive system.

Types of models

Conceptual, computational, and neural models.

ACT-R

A symbolic cognitive architecture that models cognition using production rules and memory modules.

Production systems

Models of cognition based on condition-action rules.

Production rules

“If-then” rules that guide behavior.

Working memory

A limited-capacity system for temporarily storing and manipulating information.

Connectionism

A modeling approach that represents cognition using networks of interconnected units.

Connectionist models

Neural-network-based models inspired by brain structure.

Back-propagation

A learning algorithm that adjusts connection weights based on error.

Theoretical assumptions of each area of cognitive psychology

Each subfield assumes cognition can be studied scientifically using controlled experiments and formal models.

Modularity

The idea that the mind consists of specialized, independent components.

Domain specificity

The idea that cognitive systems are specialized for specific types of information.

Retinal ganglion cell

An output neuron of the retina whose axons form the optic nerve and transmit visual information to the brain.

From eye to cortex

Light → retina → retinal ganglion cells → optic nerve → optic chiasm → LGN (thalamus) → primary visual cortex (V1).

Retinopy (retinotopy)

The orderly mapping of the visual field onto the retina and visual cortex.

Receptive field

The region of the visual field that influences the firing of a neuron.

Lateral inhibition

Neural inhibition between neighboring cells that enhances edge contrast.

Parvocellular pathway

A visual pathway specialized for color, fine detail, and form.

Brain systems

Large-scale networks of brain regions that work together to support perception and action.

Route of visual signals

Retina → LGN → V1 → extrastriate cortex → dorsal and ventral streams.

Ventral / what pathway

The pathway from occipital to temporal lobe involved in object identification and perception.

Dorsal / how pathway

The pathway from occipital to parietal lobe involved in spatial processing and action guidance.

Milner and Goodale’s theory

Vision is divided into two systems: one for perception (ventral) and one for action (dorsal).

Two visual systems: perception and action

Ventral stream supports conscious perception; dorsal stream supports visually guided actions.

Conscious awareness in dorsal stream

Limited or absent; dorsal processing often occurs without conscious awareness.

Zeki’s functional specialization theory

Different visual attributes (color, motion, form) are processed in specialized brain areas.

Form processing

Analysis of shape and structure of objects.

Color processing

Neural analysis of wavelength information to produce color perception.

Motion processing

Analysis of movement direction and speed.

Achromatopsia

Loss of color vision due to cortical damage.

Akinetopsia

Impaired perception of motion due to damage to motion-processing areas.

Visual form agnosia

Inability to recognize objects despite intact vision.

Optic ataxia

Difficulty reaching for objects using visual information.

Familiar size

Using known object size to judge distance.

Binding problem

How the brain combines features (color, shape, motion) into a single percept.

Allocentric coding

Object-centered representation independent of the observer.

Egocentric coding

Body-centered representation relative to the observer.

Visual illusions

Cases where perception differs from physical reality.

Müller-Lyer illusion

Line length misperception caused by arrow-like endings.

Ebbinghaus illusion

Perceived size changes depending on surrounding objects.

Hollow face illusion

A concave face is perceived as convex due to prior knowledge.

Color vision

The ability to discriminate wavelengths of light.

Trichromacy theory

Color vision arises from three cone types sensitive to different wavelengths.

Dichromacy

Color vision deficiency caused by loss of one cone type.

Opponent processes

Color perception is based on opposing color pairs (red–green, blue–yellow).

Negative afterimage

Perceived complementary color after prolonged viewing.

Color constancy

Perceiving object color as stable despite changes in illumination.

Illuminant

The light source illuminating a scene.