hard terms

reification

The process of regarding abstract concepts as if they have a concrete existence.

social facts

The values, cultural norms, and social structures that transcend the individual and can exercise social control.

positivism

A philosophical theory stating that only knowledge acquired through empirical observation and reason is valid.

anti-positivism

A viewpoint that argues that social sciences require a different approach than natural sciences due to the subjective nature of human experience.

verstehen

A German term meaning 'understanding,' used in sociology to denote the deep comprehension of social actions.

public sociology

An approach that seeks to engage non-academic audiences in sociological discussions and findings.

postmodern social theory

A theoretical perspective that critiques established narratives and emphasizes the relativity of truth and knowledge.

sociological imagination

The ability to see the relationship between individual experiences and larger social influences.

figuration

A term by Norbert Elias referring to the interconnected social practices and relationships among individuals.

social institution

An established and structured system of social relationships that shape behavior in a society.

social solidarity

The bonds that connect members of a society, creating a sense of belonging and community.

latent functions

The unintended or hidden consequences of social processes or structures.

content analysis

A research method used to analyze and interpret the content of communication.

empirical evidence

Information obtained through observation or experimentation.

ethnography

A qualitative research method focused on studying cultures and communities through immersive observation.

interpretive framework

A perspective used to understand and analyze the meanings behind social phenomena.

literature review

A systematic examination and evaluation of existing research on a specific topic.

non-reactive research

A research method that does not alter the subject's behavior.

participant observation

A qualitative research method in which the researcher immerses themselves in the community being studied.

population

The entire group of individuals that a researcher is interested in studying.

primary data

Data collected directly by the researcher for their specific study.

secondary data

Data that has been collected by others and is used for analysis in a new study.

reliability

The consistency and dependability of a research measure or instrument.

validity

The extent to which a research measure accurately reflects what it is intended to measure.

accuracy

The degree to which a measurement is free from errors.

value neutrality

The principle of remaining objective and impartial in research.

cultural universals

Common practices and beliefs that are found across all human cultures.

culture lag

The period of adjustment when the non-material culture is struggling to adapt to new material conditions.

diffusion

The spread of cultural beliefs and social activities from one group to another.

globalization

The process of increased interconnectedness among countries, particularly in terms of economic and cultural exchange.

ideal culture

The values and norms a society claims to uphold.

real culture

The values and norms that actually guide a society's behavior.

innovation vs invention

Innovation refers to improving upon or making significant contributions to something already existing, while invention involves creating something entirely new.

norms

Societal rules that define acceptable and expected behavior.

sanctions

Punishments or rewards for behavior in relation to social norms.

sapir whorf hypothesis

The theory that the language we speak influences the way we think.

social control

The mechanisms, strategies, and institutions used to regulate individual behavior in a society.

subculture

A group within a larger culture that has distinct values and norms.

achieved status

A social position a person attains as a result of their actions.

anomie

A state of normlessness where individuals feel disconnected from the values of society.

ascribed status

A social position assigned at birth or involuntarily acquired.

false consciousness

A term used to describe beliefs, ideologies, or strategies that prevent individuals from recognizing their own best interests.

habitualization

The process by which actions are repeated frequently and become routines.

institutionalization

The process of embedding something within an organization or culture.

iron cage

A metaphor used by Max Weber to describe how bureaucratic rules can trap individuals in systems of rational control.

looking glass self

A concept by Charles Horton Cooley that describes how individuals develop their self-concepts based on how others perceive them.

proletariat

The working class, especially in Marxist contexts.

rationalization

The process by which traditional and spontaneous ways of thinking are replaced by a focus on efficiency and logic.

role conflict vs role strain

Role conflict occurs when an individual faces competing demands from different roles, whereas role strain is the stress or strain experienced within a single role.

role set

The various roles associated with a single status.

social integration

The process of uniting different groups within society.

thomas theorem

The idea that if people define situations as real, they are real in their consequences.

anticipatory socialization

The process of learning and adopting the values and behaviors of a group one aspires to join.

degradation ceremony

A social process through which an individual is publicly denounced and stripped of their social status.

generalized other

The common behavioral expectations of general society.

hidden curriculum

The unwritten and informal lessons, values, and behaviors that are taught in schools.

moral development

The process by which individuals learn to distinguish right from wrong.

nature vs nurture

The debate concerning the relative influence of genetics and environment on human behavior.

peer group

A social group consisting of individuals of similar age and social status.

resocialization

The process of discarding former behaviors, beliefs, and norms and adopting new ones.