Imperialism Rise in Nationalism • During the French and Industrial Revolution, nationalism continued to inspire nations to increase their political and economic power. • Nationalism became the ideal force in the political, economic, and cultural life in the world, becoming the first universal ideology-organizing all people into a nation state. Nationalism Defined • The strong belief that the interest of a particular nation-state is of primary importance. o Nation-State – a state where the vast majority shares the same culture and is conscious of it. It is an ideal in which cultural boundaries match up with political ones. • As an ideology, it is based on the idea that the individual’s loyalty and devotion to the nation-state surpass other individual/group interests. • Exalting one nation’s belief above all others and placing primary emphasis on promotion of its culture and interests, excluding the interests of others. Changing the World through a Nationalistic Vision • The French Revolution significantly changed the political world and how countries govern. • The Industrial Revolution significantly changed the economic world. • The Age of Imperialism (1870-1914) dramatically changed the political, economic, and social world. What is Imperialism? • Imperialism- The policy of extending the rule of authority of an empire or nation over foreign countries, or of acquiring and holding colonies and dependencies. Power and influence are done through diplomacy or military force. Reasons for Imperialism • There are 5 main motives for empires to seek to expand their rule over other countries or territories: 1. Exploratory • Imperial nations wanted to explore territory unknown to them. • The main purpose for this exploration of new lands was for resource acquisition, medical or scientific research. o Charles Darwin • Other reasons: o Cartography (map making) o Adventure 2. Ethnocentric • Europeans acted on the concept of ethnocentrism o Ethnocentrism- the belief that one race or nation is superior to others. • Ethnocentrism developed out of Charles Darwin’s “survival of the fittest” theory. Philosophers used the theory to explain why there were superior races and inferior races. o This became known as Social Darwinism. • Most imperial nations believed that their cultural values or beliefs were superior to other nations or groups. • Believed imperial conquest would bring successful culture to inferior people. 3. Religious • Imperial expansion promoted a religious movement of people setting out to convert new members of conquered territories. • With the belief that Christianity was superior, missionaries believed it was their duty to spread Christianity to the world. • Christian missionaries established churches, and in doing so, they spread Western culture values as well. • Typically, missionaries spread the imperial nation's language through education and religious interactions. 4. Political • Patriotism and Nationalism helped spur our imperial growth, thus creating competition against other supremacies. • It was a matter of national pride, respect, and security. • Furthermore, European rivalry spurred nations for imperial conquest. Since land equaled power, the more land a country could acquire the more prestige they could wield across the globe. • Empires wanted strategic territory to ensure access for their navies and armies around the world. • The empire believed they must expand, thus they needed to be defended. 5. Economic • With the Industrial Revolution taking place during the same time, governments and private companies contributed to find ways to maximize profits. • Imperialized countries provided European factories and markets with natural resources (old and new) to manufacture products. • Trading posts were strategically placed around imperialized countries to maximize and increase profits. o Such places as the Suez Canal in Egypt which was controlled by the British provided strategic choke hold over many European powers. o Imperial powers competed over the best potential locations for resources, markets, and trade. History of Imperialism • Ancient Imperialism 600 BCE-500 CE o Roman Empire, Ancient China, Greek Empire, Persian Empire, Babylonian Empire. • Middle Age Imperialism (Age of Colonialism-1400-1800s) o Great Britain, Spain, Portugal, France, Netherlands (Dutch), Russia. • Age of Imperialism 1870-1914 o Great Britain, Spain, Portugal, France, Germany, Belgium, Italy, Japan, United States, Ottoman Empire, Russia. • Current Imperialism...? o U.S. Military intervention (i.e. Middle East) o Russia’s Invasion of Ukraine. Imperialism Colonialism • Refers to political or economic control, either legally or illegally. • Refers to where one nation assumes control over the other. • Creating an empire, expanding into neighboring regions and expanding the dominance far outside its borders. • Where a country conquers and rules over other regions for exploiting resources from the conquered country for the conqueror's benefit. • Foreign government controls/governs a territory without significant settlement. • Foreign government controls/governs the territory from within the land being colonized. • Little to no new settlement established on fresh territory. • Movement to settle to fresh territory. Age of Colonialism WHEN? • Started around the late 1400s and ended around the late 1700s/early 1800s. WHY? • Primary Reason: European countries, wished to find a direct trade route to Asia (China & India) and the East Indies. o Quicker and relatively more effective than land routes over Asia. • Secondary Reason: Empire expansion (land power) WHO? • Countries involved: Great Britain, France, Spain, the Dutch & Portugal. • Individuals’ knowns as Mercantilists believed that maintaining imperialized territory and colonizing the region could serve as a source of wealth, while personal motives by rulers, explorers, and missionaries could therefore promote their own agenda. o This agenda being “Glory, God and Gold”. Mercantilism • Mercantilism was a popular and main economic system for many European nations during the 16th to 18th centuries. • The main goal was to increase a nation’s wealth by promoting government rule of a nation’s economy for the purpose of enhancing state power at the expense of rival national power. • It was the economic counterpart of political absolutism. Why did mercantilists want colonies? • Mercantilists believed that a country must have an excess of exports over imports. • By colonizing territory, it provided the nation with indispensable wealth of precious raw materials. • Therefore, the claimed territory served as a market and supplier of raw materials for the mother country. Which, in time, provided an excess of exports for the nation and thus created wealth. o Development of Trading Companies to support this economic system. Hudson Bay Company – (1670). Controlled primarily North America. o Dutch East Indie Trading Company (1682) o East Indian Trading Company (1600) o Royal African Trade Company (1672) WHERE? • European nations begun to colonize the America, India and the East Indies to create a direct trade route. • Great Britain was the leading power in India, Australia and North America, South Africa. • Spain colonized central and South America. • French held Louisiana, coastal land of Africa and French Guinea. • The Dutch built an empire in the East Indies. • The Portuguese was able to take control of present-day Brazil and the southern tip of South America and Japan. Age of Colonialism • As countries started to imperialize these regions, eventually the concept of colonization took hold: • This is what makes the Age of Colonialism extremely different! End of Colonialism • By 1800, colonialism became less popular • Why? o Revolutions (Spain, France & American) o The Napoleonic Wars o Struggle for nationalism and democracy. o Exhausted all money and energy to supervise their colonies. Waiting to wake again • Imperialism would stay quiet for close to 50 years before Great Britain and France’s economies revitalized. • The outbreak of the Industrial Revolution only encouraged and revitalized European nations to begin their conquest for new territory and resources. Age of Imperialism THE SCRAMBLE FOR AFRICA 1870-1914 Conditions Prior to Imperialism of Africa  European interest in exploiting Africa was minimal.  Their economic interests & profit in Africa primarily came through coastal trade that took place during the 1500-1700s.  The slave trade became the main source of European profit.  Furthermore, disease, political instability, lack of transportation and unpredictable climate all discouraged Europeans from seeking territory. Slave Trade & the Trans-Atlantic Slave Voyages  Forced labor was not uncommon during the 13-17th Centuries. Africans and Europeans had been trading goods and people across the Mediteranea for centuries.  This all changed from 1526 to 1867, as a new system of slavery was introduced that became highly “commercialized, racialized and inherited”  By 1690, the America and West Indies saw approximately 30,000 African people shipped from Africa. A century later, that number grew to 85,000 people per year.  By 1867, approximately 12.5 million people (about twice the population of Arizona) left Africa in a slave ship. What Changed? 1. End of the Slave Trade- Left a need for trade between Europe and Africa. 2. Innovation in technology- The steam engine and iron hulled boats allowed Europe 3. Discovery of new raw materials- Explorers located vast raw materials and resources and this only spurred imperialism with Europe in the wake of the Industrial Revolution. 4. Politics- Unification of Germany and Italy left little room to expand in Europe. Germany and Italy both needed raw materials to “catch up” with Britain and France so they looked to Africa. The Scramble for Africa  The scramble started in 1870.  Although some coastal land had previously been acquired before 1870, the need for territory quickly accelerated as European countries looked t get deeper into Africa.  Within 20 years, nearly all continents were placed under imperialistic rule. Who was Involved?  Great Britain  France  Germany  Italy  Portugal  Belgium  Spain (kind) Violent Affairs  Violence broke out multiple times when European nations looked to claim the same territory.  Germ Chancellor. Otto van Bismarck. Attempted to avert the possibility of violence against the European powers.  In 1884, Bismarck organized a conference in Berlin for the European nations. The Berlin Conference (1884-85)  The conference looked to set ground rules for future annexation of African territory by European Nations.  Annexation is the forcible acquisition and assertion of legal title over one state’s territory by another state, usually following military occupation of the territory.  From a distant perspective, it looked like it would reduce tensions among European nations and avert war.  At the heart of the meeting, these European countries negotiated their claims to African territory, made it official and then mapped their regions.  Furthermore, the leaders agreed to allow free trade among imperialized territory and some homework for negotiating future European claims in Africa was established. Further Path  After the conference, european powers continued to expand their claims in Africa so that by 1900. 90% of the African territory had been claimed. A Turn towards Colonization?  Upon the imperialization of African territory, European nations and little interest in African land unless it produced economic wealth.  Therefore, European governments put little effort and expertise into these imperialized regions.  In most cases, this emat a form of indirect rule. Thus, governing the natin without sufficient settlement and government from within the mother country. Some Exceptions  There were some exemptions through in Africa as colonization was a necessary for some regions i n Africa.  Some regions where diamonds and gold were present. Government looked to protectorate the regions and establish rule and settlement in the regions.  Protectorates: A state controlled and protected by another state for defense against aggression and other law violations. Would  Some examples include South Africa, Botswana, Zimbabwe and Congo. Conclusion  Although it may appear that the Berlin Conference averted war amid the African Scramble, imperialism eventually brought the world into worldwide conflict.  With the continued desire to create an empire by European nations. World War 1 would break out which can be linked to this quest at imperialism.

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Chapter 18: Fires and Explosives

18.1: Fire

Arson – fires that are deliberately set with criminal intent.
The study of fires for forensic purposes involves determining the characteristics and damage caused by the fire as well as the point of origin and cause.
Combustion – the reaction of a fuel with oxygen.
- The products of complete combustion are carbon dioxide (and other oxides if present), water, and energy
Exothermic – a chemical reaction that releases energy as one of its products.
Endothermic – a reaction that requires the input of energy for the reaction to take place.

Conditions for a Fire

The Fire Tetrahedron

The fire tetrahedron depicts the four elements that must be present to have a fire: a source of heat or energy, fuel, a source of oxygen, and a chain reaction between the fuel and oxygen.

The source of energy is necessary to elevate the fuel and oxygen molecules into an excited state so that they can undergo chemical reactions.
The temperature necessary to do this varies with the fuel and is called the ignition temperature.
- Once this temperature is reached, a fire can continue on a self-sustaining basis.
The fuel must be a vapor for it to combust.
Flashpoint – the lowest temperature that will allow a liquid to produce a flammable vapor.
Flame point – the highest temperature.

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Flammable and combustible liquids are further subdivided into the following classes:

Class IA
- Flashpoint below 73°F (22.8°C) and boiling point below 100 °F (37.8°C).
- Acetaldehyde, diethyl ether, pentane, ethyl chloride, ethyl mercaptan, hydrocyanic acid, and gasoline.
Class IB
- Flashpoint below 73°F (22.8°C) and the boiling point at or above 100 °F (37.8 °C).
- Acetone, benzene, carbon disulfide, cyclohexane, ethyl alcohol, heptane, hexane, isopropyl alcohol, methyl alcohol, methyl ethyl ketone, toluene, petroleum ether, acetonitrile, and tetrahydrofuran.
Class IC
- Flashpoint at or above 73 °F (22.8°C) and below 100°F (37.8 °C).
- Glacial acetic acid, acetic anhydride, cyclohexanone, and chloroethyl ether.
Class II
- Flashpoint at or above 100 °F (37 °C) and below 140 °F (60°C).
- Kerosene, diesel fuel, hydrazine, and cyclohexanone.
Class IIIA
- Flashpoint at or above 140°F (60°C) and below 200 °F (93.4°C).
- Aniline, cyclohexanol, phenol, o-cresol, naphthalene, nitrobenzene, and p-dichlorobenzene.
Class IIIB
- Flashpoint at or above 200 °F (93.4 °C).
- Diethyl sulfate, diethylene glycol, and p-cresol.

Smoke – occurs when there is incomplete combustion in a fire.
Flashback:
- Sometimes a fire will occur in a building where the oxygen supply is limited and as the oxygen is used up, more smoke is formed.
- If this fire is then suddenly ventilated, the increased oxygen will cause an explosive fire.
Accelerants – fuels that are easily vaporized and support combustion, and are highly exothermic.
- These liquids are poured around the area that is to be burnt and then ignited.

Types of Fire

Natural Fires – are caused by lightning strikes; flammable gases that escape from the ground around an oil field and combust.
Accidental Fires
- It’s sometimes hard to distinguish if the cause is either accidental or deliberate.
- Sometimes rags that have been used to clean up spills from kerosene or another fuel can heat up enough to cause “spontaneous combustion” if they are left in a closed area for a long time.
Deliberate Fires – started with malicious intent and involve several steps.
- Determination of arson can be aided by finding residues from an accelerant or other evidence such as multiple points of origin, fire trails, etc.
Other ways of Classifying Fires
- Direct Ignition: It involves the direct application of a spark or flame source to the fuel.
- Electrical Fires: These happen due to malfunction of wiring or overheating.
- Weather-related Fires: Lightning strikes are the most common. Wildfires are either natural or deliberate.
- Mechanical fires: These happen when a machine overheats either through misuse or incorrect placement.

Fire Scene Investigation

The investigator must proceed in an orderly, methodical way, and must make accurate, thorough records of the investigation through still or video photography and good note-taking.
- If the fire scene is a building, then the investigation would normally start with the exterior of the building and work toward the point of origin inside the building.
- If the fire is outside, such as in a forest, then the investigation proceeds from outside the damaged area toward the area of origin.
- Arson dogs – specially trained dogs that can sniff out trace evidence of hydrocarbon accelerants.
Consider the points of entry and exist.
Know the point of origin of the fire.
Start to locate the point of origin.
- Low Burning:
- Fires generally start in a low area of a building.
- Arson fires are seldom started at a high place because the perpetrator may not have a safe point of exit and the damage will generally not be as great since fires burn in an upward direction.
- V Patterns: If the point of origin is near a wall or corner of a room, smoke damage on the wall(s) usually occurs in a “V” shape.
- Wood charring: The depth of wood charring depends upon the intensity of the heat near the wood and the time of exposure.
- Spalling of plaster or concrete: Spalling is the destruction of a surface due to heat or other factors. It usually occurs where the heat is most intense.
- Material distortion: Metal and glass may melt or distort owing to high heat.
- Soot and smoke staining: The amount of soot present in a fire may indicate the point of origin and the direction of travel of the fire.
Indicate the arson fire.
- The presence of an accelerant.
- Elimination of natural or accidental causes of a fire.
- Fire trails.
- Multiple points of origin
Preserve most evidence.
If there is one rule about the packaging fire scene evidence that is to be tested for accelerant residues, it is that airtight containers must be used.

Analyzing Fire Scene Residue Evidence

Isolate the accelerant, which is usually an ignitable liquid or residue from the matrix of charred or unburned material.
Determine the nature of the accelerant residue.
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Weathering – used to describe the degradation of an accelerant due to heat or other environmental factors.
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Isolation and Concentration of Accelerant Residues
- Neat ignitable liquid
- It may be possible to pour off the liquid from the residue, filter it to remove solid particulates, separate the hydrocarbon from the water, and make a direct injection into the gas chromatograph.
- Partially burned accelerants
- The major change that these substances undergo is the evaporation of the most volatile components, leaving the higher boiling components behind. Usually, such exhibits must be extracted from the matrix to be concentrated.
- Nearly completely burned accelerants
- If an accelerant has been subjected to extreme heat for a significant period, nearly all of the substances present will evaporate or burn. Identification of these residues can be difficult owing to a lack of characteristic chromatographic information.
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Four Methods used for Isolation of Accelerant Residues

Headspace Methods – a technique for sampling and examining the volatiles associated with a solid or liquid sample.
Adsorption Methods
- Passive Adsorption – a small container of charcoal or Tenax or a plastic strip coated with one of them is placed or suspended inside the container.
- Active Adsorption – two tubes containing charcoal or Tenax are inserted partway into the container through holes in the top. Then the air is pumped through one of the tubes into the container.
- Solid Phase Microextraction – a fiber made from fused silica is coated with an adsorbent such as charcoal or Tenax. This is inserted into the heated fire residue container.
Solvent Extraction: An evidence container is opened and a small quantity of a suitable solvent is added. The solvent is then poured off and filtered and then evaporated to a small volume leaving behind the accelerant residue
- Carbon disulfide is the most popular solvent for this process.
Steam Distillation: Some of the accelerant residues are put in a distillation apparatus with some water, which is then boiled and distilled. The steam will heat and carry over accelerant residues

Analysis of Fire Scene Accelerant Residues by GC

The key to effective analysis of accelerants by GC is to have a comprehensive library of chromatograms that are obtained preferably on the same instrument as the analysis of unknowns, or at least taken under the same conditions.
Mass spectrometry has added flexibility and refinement to GC analysis of fire scene evidence. Individual components of residues can be unequivocally identified.
Selective Ion Monitoring – the mass spectrometer looks for particular ions that are characteristic of particular types of flammables.
Target Compound Analysis – a profile of compounds that are present in each type of accelerant, such as gasoline, are monitored by the mass spectrometer.

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In a fire scene investigation, there are two major goals:

Determining the type of fire and
If the fire was deliberately started, who did it?

18.2: Explosions and Explosives

Conflagration – the spark from the spark plug causes very rapid combustion to take place.
ANFO – ammonium nitrate; pellets of it are coated with fuel oil.
- It is classified as a low explosive because the velocity of the explosion is not as powerful as in the case of more energetic explosives.
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Such materials undergo instantaneous combustion or detonation.

The combustion is not instantaneous, there is always a time lag, but it is even more rapid than in a conflagration.
High explosives such as trinitrotoluene (TNT) and nitroglycerine (NG) undergo detonations.

Effects of Explosions

Blast Pressure: The wave that is created by this blast will shatter anything that gets in its way. The damage decreases with distance as the wave loses energy. As the blast wave travels away from the bomb seat, it creates a partial vacuum because the air itself has been displaced. When the blast wave dissipates, the vacuum must be filled.
- Negative Pressure Phase: Not as powerful as the positive pressure blast phase but it is capable of doing additional serious damage to objects that have already been damaged by the initial blast.
Fragmentation Effects
- The bomb casing itself can shatter and the pieces can be propelled away from the bomb seat with great force.
- The bomber may wrap nails or other pieces of metal around the bomb to create shrapnel that will cause fragmentation damage.
- The blast may break up objects in a way that may also fragment and be propelled.
Thermal Effects – least damaging of the effects of the explosion.
- At the instant of detonation, a large ball of fire or flash is produced at the bomb seat. This will be very hot and very brief if a high explosive is used and will be longer in duration but not as hot in the case of low explosives.

Types of Explosives

Low Explosives – have detonation velocities below 3280 fps. The main effect of low explosives is to push rather than to shatter.
- These kinds of explosives are often used in blasting operations when it is desired to push earth or material out of the way.
- The smokeless powder consists of small particles containing nitrocellulose (single base) or nitrocellulose and NG (double base).
- Black powder is a finely milled mixture of carbon, sulfur, and potassium nitrate.
- Low explosives can be easily set off by using a flame, a spark, or chemicals such as acids.
High Explosives – have detonation rates above 3280fps. These explosives are designed to shatter objects and destroy them.
- When these explode they create a strong shock wave that shatters the chemical bonds that hold molecules of fuel and oxygen together.
- Two Types of High Explosives:
  - Initiating high explosives – very powerful and very sensitive. Even the slightest shock or spark can be enough to cause detonation.
  - Noninitiating high explosives – not sensitive and it usually takes a good deal of effort to cause detonation.

High and Low-Order Explosions

High Order Explosion – one that occurs at or near its maximum theoretical detonation velocity. It is the explosion that you get if everything works out right.
Low Order Explosion – one that takes place at less than optimal efficiency. This can be due any several factors. These include:
- Old, out-of-date explosive explosives that is subject to excessive moisture or humidity
- Improperly constructed explosive device
- Improper placement of the device

Explosive Trains

Low Explosive Trains – One example would be a pipe bomb wherein a fuse made of black powder is used to detonate smokeless powder inside the pipe. This would be classified as a low-explosive train because the final explosive, the smokeless powder, is a low explosive.
High Explosive Trains – The final explosive is usually a secondary explosive. The detonator may be a blasting cap or other suitable primary explosive. In between, there may be other secondary high explosives that act as boosters.

Analysis of Explosives

Vapor Trace Analyzer – a detector that helps aid in sifting through evidence to find explosive residues from the scene.
- It is a specialized gas chromatograph that is optimized for explosives.
- Electron Capture Detector – used to detect the presence of explosive residues.

Visual Examination – by manually removing residues under a lower power microscope.
- If no large particles of undetonated explosive can be isolated, then it may be necessary to dissolve microscopic particles with a suitable solvent and remove them from the debris —- this may be faster than manual sifting but suffers from several disadvantages.
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