Class 3: sexual orientation

terms

case study: Portrait of a lady on fire

overview:

• directed by Celine Sciamma

• genre: period drama

• plot: painter Marianne is commissioned to paint Heloise, a reluctant bride to be. Marianna must observe her in secret while pretending to be her companion. their bond deepens into romantic love.

ket themes

• writing women into art history

  • she creates a fictional female artist to highlight the historical erasure of women painters

  • Marianne must exhibit her work under her father’s name, exposing gender inequality in art

  • the film re- inscribes women into cultural and artistic narratives traditionally dominated by men

• same sex desire in historical context

  • set in a time hostile to homosexuality, the film centres female same- sex love without sensationalism

  • the film imagines a space of emotional and sexual freedom

  • women, though less persecuted then men. were till denied public visibility or legitimacy in love

• female gaze

  • the film functions as a manifesto for the female gaze:

  • rejects objectification and voyeurism

  • centres mutual looking, emotional intimacy and reciprocity

  • shows women as subjects of art, not objects

• relevance for gender and media studies

  • challenges the male gaze in visual culture

  • explores female artistic labour and invisibiloty

  • provides a queer, feminist reimagining of historical narratives

  • demonstrates how representation can be political and reparative

male gaze

Laura Mulvey 1975

a concept from feminist film theory describing how women in cinema are objectified yo fit heterosexual male fantasy

key characteristics:

• women are depicted as passive objects of desire

• the connote to-be-looked-at-ness

• the gaze is adopted by filmmakers, characters and audiences

criticisms of the theory:

• assumes a binary and heteronormative framework

• ignored different viewing practices

suggest all mainstream Hollywood films reinforce the male gaze, which led scholars to seek counterexamples

female gaze

Sciamma describes portrait of a lady on fire as a manifesto about the female gaze

key aspects of the female gaze in film:

• exploring patriarchy without depicting men

• the film shows patriarchal control over women but focuses solely on female experiences.

• example: a subplot about women assisting a main in obtaining an abortion portrays female solidarity resisting patriarchal norms

• personal identity and experiences

• lesbian director draws from, own experiences

• avoids objectifying the female body

• erotic pleasure without objectification

Sexuality

a broad term for subjective experiences and expression of sexual desire

often used in relation to sexual orientation, but also uncloses practices and fantasies

sexual orientation

involves romantic and/or sexual attraction to others

often categorised, attraction exists on a spectrum.

may be fluid, with some people experiencing attractions that change or span across genders

asexuality: a persistent lack of sexual attraction to others

sexual behaviour

refers to actual sexual practices, regardless of identity or desire

key insights:

• behaviour does not always match orientation

• asexual individuals may engage in sex without attraction

• sexual acts may not reflect identity or desire

sexual identity

a socially constructed self- label based on one’s orientation and how they interpret it

influenced by cultural norms and language

may not always match a person’s experiences or desires

• some prefer board terms like queer, pansexual and asexual

• other reject labels entirely

sexual diversity

encompasses the range of way people experience and interpret their sexuality

Jeffrey Weeks emphasises:

• sexual identity is historically recent

• identities and behaviours are shaped by culture and time (social constructionism)

• sexual acts can be similar across cultures, but their social meaning differs

historical development of sexual identity labels

late 19th c: medicalisation of sexuality

• terms like homosexuality and heterosexuality emerged in medical, psychiatric and legal discourse

• sexuality began yo be seen as a core identity, not just behaviour

Michel Foucault’s perspective

• sexuality is produced through discourse- not simply repressed

• shift from viewing homosexuality as an act to defining the homosexual as a type of person

• this enabled:

  • social control

  • reverse discourse: LGBTQ+ individuals reclaimed medical/ legal language to demand rights and visibility

early activism, Dr. Magnus Hirschfeld

founded the institute for sexual research

advocated decriminalisation and education

co- created different from others (1919) on of the first pro- gay films

his institute was destroyed by the Nazi regime in 1933, halting early progress

1940s-60s: homophile movements

reject assimilation, embraced visibility and pride

advocated for coming out as both political and personal liberation

inspired by: stonewall uprising (1969): a turning point in LGBTQ+ resistance, resulted in global pride marches and new activist energy

spawned group like: London Gay Liberation Front, Front Homosexual d’Action Revolutionnaire

internal critiques and intersectionality

women, trans people and queer people of colour criticised the movements whiteness and male dominance

formed splinter groups: purple September, queer nation

despite differences, activists collaborated, especially during the AIDS crisis, legal reforms and societal shifts

research sexual diversity and popular media culture

early oversight

• for decades, sexual identity was largely ignored in media studies and communication sciences

• if sexuality was addressed, it was assumed to be heterosexual by default

1970s: initial scholars interest

• pioneering work came from literary and film theorists

  • focused on coded, stereotypical depiction of nonhetrosexuality

  • Key scholars: Dyer, Russo and Tyler

  • limited attention to TV

why the lack of research?

• homosexuality was underrepresented in media, especially in U.S content

• commercial pressures and taboo status kept LGBTQ+ character off screen

presence through subtext and stereotypes

queer characters were not fully absent, but often:

• coded or caricatured

• handled with bias in factual media

in contrast, European public broadcasters offered more nuanced portrayals, often through expert commentary and anonymous stories

cultivation theory- Larry Gross

core framework:

originated from Gross’s work in the 1980s, applying Gerbner’s theory to the representation of sexual minorities

media, especially television, symbolically informs audiences about the real world, particularly when personal experiences is absent

key arguments

• symbolic annihilation

  • nonheterosexual people often grow up in heteronormative environments

  • media becomes crucial for helping them understand identity and sexuality

  • heterosexual viewers without LGBTQ+ contact also rely on media to form views.

  • in the 1970s-80s, LGBTQ+ people were:

    • rarely represented

    • shown in negative, one- dimensional ways

    • less visible than women or ethnic minorities

• U.S. media and the AIDS crisis

  • media In the 1980s portrayed gay men as folk devils during the AIDS epidemic

  • coverage was biased and reinforced stereotypes

  • homosexuality was positioned as the opposite of the heterosexual ideal

• main concern

  • without accurate representation, both LGBTQ+ and straight audiences might internalise harmful stereotypes

  • urged for positive and realistic portrayals to counter misinformation

• research approach

  • inspired quantitative content analyses

  • concern: viewers may believe these portrayals reflect real- world dynamics

• strengths of this approach

  • offers descriptive insights

    • patterns and trends in LGBTQ+ visibility

    • intersectionality in representation (gender, race, class)

    • helps assess media’s influence on public opinion and societal attitudes

criticisms:

• same as in earlier lectures;

  • overemphasises media influence- assumes audiences passively absorb content

  • neglects audience agency

queer theory

what is queer theory?

• a diverse, interdisciplinary field originating in the 1980s- 1990s

• founded by scholars like Judith Butler, Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick, and Michael Warner

• influenced by social constructionism, post structuralism, and lesbian feminism

core aims:

• challenge essentialist views of sexuality and gender

• deconstruct heteronormative norms that frame heterosexual, binary, monogamous identities as ‘natural’ or superior

• revalue and reimagine nonheterosexual and gender- diverse lives

queer theory- applications in media and cultural studies

focus: media representations of LGBTQ+ identities, including gender severity, studies Bothe explicit representation and implicit subtext

key goals: examine how media reinforces or resists heteronormativity, study audience reception and how queer people interpret media, investigate digital environments, especially how queer youth navigate or resist heteronormative platforms

queer theory: strengths and criticisms

strengths

• offers critical alternatives to mainstream portrayals

• highlights the mere inclusion of LGBTQ+ characters is not always progressive

• draws attention to subtext, nuance and power relations in representation

criticisms:

• may over interpret media, attributing queer meaning where not intended

• risk of dismissing symbolic progress, especially in historical exclusionary genres

• relies heavily on qualitative analysis, potentially overlooking quantitative trends and data

case study: friends (the one with the male nanny)

characters that express heteronormative ideas:

• Ross clearly expresses heteronormative and gender normative ideas:

  • he feels uncomfortable with the idea of a male nanny (Sandy), questioning his masculinity and sexuality.

  • he implies that childcare is a female job, reinforcing traditional gender roles

characters that challenge heteronormative ideas

• Sandy (the male nanny) challenges heteronormativity and hegemonic masculinity

  • he is emotionally expressive, nurturing and comfortable in a caregiving role, which contrast with traditional masculine norms.

• Rachel also challenges Ross’s discomfort by defending Sandy’s capabilities and emotional intelligence

what doe the episode say about men and women in relation to heteronormative, non heterosexuality and non normative masculinity?

• episode suggests that men who deviate form stereotypical masculinity are suspected of being gay or unmanly, illustrating the stigma around non normative masculinity

• women are shown to be more accepting of emotional labour and fluid gender roles, while men uphold heteronormative standards

what does it tell us about hegemonic masculinity

• it reinforces how hegemonic masculinity marginalises emotional sensitivity and caregiving in men

• Ross’s rejection of Sandy reflects societal pressure for men to conform to dominant masculine ideals

does the episode, in the end, deconstruct heteronormativity or not?

• partially: while Sandy is portrayed positively and respected by Rachel, the episode ultimately sides with Ross’s discomfort, and Sandy is let go

• the show acknowledges non normative masculinity but does not fully validate or normalise it, stopping short of truly deconstructing heteronormativity

heteronormativity (Warner)

a system that assumes fixed biological links between sex, gender, and sexuality

• enforces binary, oppositional and hierarchical relations

• embeds these norms in institutions and social values

queerness

not just a sexual identity but a critique of normative systems

represents a space of possibility, dissonance and resistance

reclaimed as a term of empowerment and activism in the 1980s and 90s

queer production studies

sociocultural questions:

• how do LGBTQ+ creators experience the industry

• do they face homophobia or pressure to conform?

• how do artists negotiate sexual identity with public/ media personas?

political- economic questiosn

• are media companies truly inclusive, or is it queerbating?

• queerbating: promising queer representation but failing to deliver

absent images and coded representation

early cinema and coded queerness (mid1880s to late 1920)

• explicit LGBTQ+ depiction were rare, but historians identified coded representations: subtle indicators of same sex desire or gender nonconformity embedded on visual/ narrative elements

• queer filmmaker influence., LGBTQ+ individuals behind the scenes shed narratives with subtle queer undertones. the arts offered relative safety for nonhetrosexual identities

queer signifiers and stereotypes

• gender nonconformity signaled queerness:

  • ‘sissy stereotype: fluttering hands, used lips, sashing, handkerchief

  • ‘dyke/tough woman’ stereotype: cigars, monocles, jackets, slicked hair

• these characters were often: comic relief or harmless, not vilifies directly, but made into punchlines

more open representation in Europe

• European films were ore explicit in exploring same- sex desire

growing U.S censorship and moral panic

• by the 1920s-30s, audiences and censors increasingly recognised coded queer characters

• conservative fears of sexual perversion prompted crackdowns, especially in Hollywood

Hollywood self- censorship: the production code

• PCA (production code administration) enforced moral standards

• banned any reference to homosexuality or sexual perversion

shift to negative queer stereotypes

• with direct representation banned, queerness was coded as deviant pr dangerous

stereotyping

visibility without legitimacy

• from mid 20th C onward, representation of sexual diversity increased, but often lacked depth or legitimacy

• media responded to activist pressure but retained heteronormative framing

persistent stereotypes

• non heterosexual characters were often: vulnerable,, neurotic, self- loathing, psychotic, sadistic or predatory

• representations were geared toward a heterosexual audience, encouraging pity, ridicule or fear

conclusion

• increased representation /= liberation

• shifted from tragic or monstrous depictions to : sidekicks, comic relief, or heterosexual “recuperation” scenes

• non heterosexual identities remained: marginal, secondary or contained within heteronormative frameworks

case study- the children’s hour

based on Lilian Hellman’s play

central plot: a rumour about two female teachers being lovers causes social ruins

Martha’s coming out is framed as self- hatred, ends in suicide, reinforcing the tragic queer trope

fits Dyer’s concept of stereotyping through structure- queer characters are structurally doomed

from tragedy to subtle stereotypes

late 20th C: representation increased, but:

• stereotypes persisted in subtle, coded ways

• straight men feared being perceived as gay

• homoscioial moments were followed by heterosexual affirmations

• reinforced hegemonic masculinity and the idea of gayness as inferior

the gay best friend trope

openly gay characters often appeared in:

• romantic comedies, teen dramas, female- led shows

functioned as:

• secondary characters

• emotional support for straight women

• leaked full storyline, sexuality often desexualised

homonormativity

defined as a set of norms, values, beliefs and practices of noneterosexual people who seek inclusion in a heteronormative society without challenging it.

suggests depoliticisation: assumes rights are fully acquired and that activism is no longer necessary

leads to portrayals that align with heteronormative expectations tanner than celebrating difference

contemporary blending of heteronormative and queerness:

• many modern shows navigate both traditional and queer themes

• some challenge heteronormativity from within mainstream formats

new queer cinema (1990s)

independent films that defiantly rejected heteronormative norms

features: marginalised queer identities, sexual agency, anti- assimilation, political edge, postmodern aesthetics

notable films is Paris is burning, my own private Idaho, happy together

Case Study- Skam

season 3, follows Isak, a closeted teen exploring his sexuality.

innovative features: Isak’s point of view takes centre stage, goes beyond a coming out story to explore identity, intimacy and social pressure

how it engages heteronormativity: shows how societal expectations force Isak to perform heterosexuality and hegemonic masculinity, reveals internalised homogenativity as a product of social norms

challenging norms: Isak’s straight friends begin reflecting on their assumptions about masculinity, stereotypes are questioned directly, Eskild, an openly gay character, educates Isak about: LGBTQ+ history, activism and pride, the importance of not erasing political struggle

queer practices of fan audiences

historically seen as dysfunctional, fan audiences are now recognised as a central part of cultural consumption

fans engage actively with media, often rewriting or reinterpreting it to reflect their own desires, identities and politics

fan fiction and slash fiction

fan fiction: expands original narratives with fan- created stories

slash fiction: a queer subgenera of fan fiction focusing on homoerotic male/male pairings

• the / indicated a romantic or sexual pairing

• typically written by heterosexual women

• portrays characters as androgynous, emotionally vulnerable, and conflicted about masculinity

• themes often involve a struggle with hegemonic masculinity and eventual queer realisation

queer reading practices

coined by Doty (2000): interpreting texts through a queer lens, even when they are not explicitly LGBTQ+

focuses on subtext, metaphors or emotional undertones that resonate with queer identity and experience

building a queer canon (fans and scholars)

• fans and queer scholars identify and reinterpret accidentally queer or ambiguous characters

  • example: mister Babadook (ironically embraced as a queer icon)

Web 2.0 and digital media empowerment

• platforms like Youtube and fan forums allow fans to:

  • share slash fiction, fan videos, re-edits and queer- themes mashups

cultural resistance through fan practices

• slash fiction and queer readings challenge mainstream exclusion o LGBTQ+ characters:

  • especially in genres like superhero films, horror, and action

  • despite some progress queer representation is till limited in many areas

queer horror subtext

• a nightmare on Elm street 2: Freddy’s revenge

  • analysed as a queer- coded horror fulm

  • however, explicit queer protagonist in horror remain rare

evolving audience demand

• LGBTQ+ viewers are no longer content with:

  • stereotypical roles

  • coded subtext

• they are actively claiming space for more diverse, complex and central queer representation