Studied by 0 peopleDutch East India Company
Formed by the States General, this was a trading company that operated from 1602 to 1799. It played a crucial role in the development of global trade networks and colonial expansion. It’s primary purpose was trade, particularly obtaining a monopoly on the spice trade in Asia.
East Indies = modern-day Indonesia
Were originally controlled by the Portuguese, then by the Spanish. As Spain and Portugal declined, other European nations established these companies.
Grand Alliance
With the help of William I, this was formed to counter France. An alliance of England, the Dutch Republic, and Austria
Acts of Union
Made to unite England and Scotland, and protected against French attempts to put a Catholic on the English throne. Later led to the creation of a united kingdom to be called “Great Britain” on 1 May of that year
George I
As Elizabeth’s son, he was King of Great Britain, Ireland, and ruler of the Electorate of Hanover within the Holy Roman Empire.(r. 1714-1727). Via his reign, other European powers declined.
Queen Anne
Mary’s sister, she became queen after William I (1702).
Francis I
Maria Theresa’s cousin and husband, Holy Roman Emperor, Archduke of Austria, Duke of Lorraine and Bar, and Grand Duke of Tuscany who played a significant role in the Habsburg dynasty during the 18th century, influencing European politics and alliances.
Emperor Charles VI
Died in 1740, and his daughter Maria Theresa then became Queen. Frederick II of Prussia invaded the Holy Roman Empire the same year as his death.
French and Indian War
The North American conflict in a larger imperial war between Great Britain and France known as the Seven Years’ War. The British won and gained a large portion of North America from France and Spain. (1754-1763). Ended with the Treaty of Paris.
War of Austrian Succession (1740-1748)
A conflict that erupted when the legitimacy of Maria Theresa's succession to the Habsburg throne was challenged. This war involved numerous European powers, including Prussia, which invaded Silesia. The war aimed to re-establish balance among European states and assert territorial claims. Major conflicts included battles over Austrian territories with Prussia, France, and Spain, ultimately leading to a more significant struggle for supremacy in Europe.
Maria Theresa
After her father died, she became Empress of the Holy Roman Empire. Frederick the Great invaded the province of Silesia the same year she became Queen and challenged her authority, beginning the War of Austrian Succession
Seven Years’ War (1756-1763)
Began when Austria tried to regain control of Silesia, which it had lost to Prussia in the War of Austrian Succession. France, Austria, Saxony, Sweden, and Russia were aligned on one side, and they fought Prussia, Hanover, and Great Britain on the other. Ended with Austria diminishing in power and Prussia gaining power.
Estates-General
A legislative and consultative assembly in France that represented the three estates of the realm: the clergy, the nobility, and the commoners
Bourgeois
a class of business owners, merchants and wealthy people. They’re still commoners, apart of the third estate.
National Assembly
A body that represented the needs of the French people. It abolished feudalism and fiscal privileges of nobility and clergy, issued the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen
Tennis Court Oath
An oath was taken inside the Real Tennis Room at the Palace of Versailles. Members of the Third Estate took an oath never to separate until a written constitution had been established for France.
Great Fear
A period of panic and unrest that took place in France during the early stages of the French Revolution.Throughout the summer of 1789, peasants destroyed and looted the homes of tax collectors and elites
Storming of the Bastille
Preceded the Great Fear, a crowd of Parisians stormed the Bastille to demand the weapons and ammunition stored there
Women’s March
7,000 women marched to Versailles; they broke into the palace chanting, “Bread! Bread!”. This led to Louis XVI making concessions: Distribution of bread and Acceptance of Declaration. Louis and Marie Antoinette had to accompany the women back to Paris to see how citizens lived
Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen
It was set by France's National Assembly in 1789 and was a human civil rights document from the French Revolution. Called for equality, free speech, and representative government.
Jacobins
Left-wing revolutionaries lead by Maximilen de Robespierre who aimed to end the reign of King Louis XVI and establish a French republic, was the most famous political club during the French Revolution (1789–1799). Made these radical changes: Elimination of Monarchy, De-Christianization of France, Made France the ‘‘Republic of France”
Civil Constitution of the Clergy
A constitution that made the Catholic church subordinated to the state, 10% tithe paid by peasants eliminated, and bishops and priests elected by assemblies
National Convention
a single-chamber assembly that governed France during the French Revolution from 1792 to 1795 that came about after the National Assembly dissolved.
Constitution of 1791
The First Constitution of France that established France as a constitutional monarchy and limited the powers of the monarchy
Girondins
A political group during the French Revolution. From 1791 to 1793, the Girondins were active in the Legislative Assembly and the National Convention. Aimed for a Constitutional Monarchy.
Reign of Terror
A series of massacres and public executions were done by the Jacobins to anyone who opposed the revolution. ~50,000 people were killed, 16,000 via guillotine. Subsided after
Maximilien Robespierre was arrested by the National Convention and guillotined.
Maximilien Robespierre
radical democrat and key figure in the French Revolution of 1789. Lead the Jacobins and the Reign of Terror.
Directory
Formed by the Girondins, it only lasted four years (it was replaced by Napoleon’s Consulate), but it had executive power and five members. Parliament could appoint these members.
Olympe de Gouges
A Feminist that wrote the Declaration of the Rights of Woman and of the Female Citizen. She advocated for divorce rights for women and inheritance of parental property for children of unmarried parents. She died during the Reign of Terror because she was a member of the Girondins
Toussant L’Ouverture
A Haitian inspired by revolutionary ideas that took command of a slave revolt (1791). He led a successful slave revolt and emancipated the slaves in the French colony of Saint-Domingue (Haiti)
Edmund Burke
Englishman who wrote Reflections on the Revolution in France. He argued that the French Revolution would end disastrously because its abstract foundations, purportedly rational, ignored the complexities of human nature and society.
Louis-Gabriel-Ambroise, Viscount de Bonald
French counter-revolutionary philosopher and politician. He condemned the Revolution for its violence and disregard for traditional authority, so he resigned in protest against the Civil Constitution of the Clergy and emigrated to Heidelberg
Consulate
Replaced the five-member Directory (1799) with three members. Napoleon was deemed the “first consul” within this government, first consul had the most power, and could appoint most positions in government
Napoleon Bonaparte
Former Emperor of the French, he abolished the Holy Roman Empire, and abolished feudalism as he went throughout Europe. He was also able to conscript men on large scale.
Elba
Napoleon was exiled here in 1814
Scorched-earth policy
a military strategy where an army destroys anything that could help an enemy fight, such as crops, livestock, buildings, and infrastructure. Used by Russia against Napoleon’s army
St. Helena
After Battle of Waterloo, Napoleon was exiled to here; he died there in 1821
Battle of Waterloo
This Battle ended French attempts to dominate Europe and destroyed Napoleon's imperial power forever. It was faught between Napoleon's French Army and a coalition led by the Duke of Wellington and Marshal Blücher
Romanticism
An artistic, literary, and philosophical movement that originated in Europe in the late 18th century; emphasized human beings are endowed with both reason and emotion, and that emotion is a valuable and informative part of the human experience.
Evangelicalism
Protestant Christian movement that emphasizes personal conversion, the authority of the Bible, and spreading the "good news" of salvation. Followers sought to persuade people to voluntarily and sincerely commit to Christianity.
Methodism
a Protestant Christian tradition that originated in 18th-century Britain and is based on the teachings of John Wesley. Emphasized the individual’s relationship with God and personal experience of salvation.
John Wesley
an English cleric, theologian, and evangelist who was a leader of a revival movement within the Church of England known as Methodism.
Multilateral diplomacy
A diplomatic approach where multiple countries discuss and negotiate collectively on global or regional issues, aiming for cooperation on trade, security, and other concerns
Congress of Vienna
Attempted to restore the balance of power in Europe and contain the danger of revolutionary or nationalistic upheavals in the future. (1814–1815)
Frederick II of Prussia
Also known as Frederick the Great, he ruled from 1740 to 1786 and is known for his military victories, administrative reforms, and patronage of the arts. He expanded Prussia's territory, particularly during the War of Austrian Succession and the Seven Years' War.
Francis Bacon
English philosopher, statesman, and essayist who emphasized inductive reasoning (empiricism), specific to general.
Inductive reasoning
a method of drawing conclusions by going from the specific to the general
Rene Descartes
French philosopher, scientist, and mathematician, considered an influential figure in the emergence of modern philosophy and science. Emphasized deductive reasoning (rationalism), general to specific.
Deductive reasoning
a basic form of reasoning that uses a general principle or premise as grounds to draw specific conclusions.
Geocentric vs. Heliocentric
The geocentric says that the earth is at the center of the universe, and everything revolves around it. Heliocentric considers the sun as the center, and the planets revolve around the sun.
Kepler
German astronomer, mathematician, astrologer, natural philosopher, and writer of music. Developed elliptical planetary orbits
Copernicus
A Renaissance polymath, mathematician, astronomer, and Catholic, who formulated a model of the universe that placed the Sun rather than Earth at its center. (Heliocentric Universe)
Galileo
Italian astronomer, physicist, and engineer. Invented the telescope, and observed the stars of the Milky Way, the phases of Venus, the four largest satellites of Jupiter, Saturn's rings, lunar craters, and sunspots.
William Harvey
an English physician who was the first to recognize the full circulation of blood in the human body and to provide experiments and arguments to support this idea.
Rationalism
human knowledge comes from innate reason; humans can derive knowledge of things they have not experienced based on this innate logical and mathematical reasoning.
Empiricism
knowledge comes through sensory experience alone; generalizations are a synthesis of sensory experience
John Locke
Humans are endowed with some natural rights by God, regardless of what society they live in
Minds are a blank slate (tabula rasa); people become know what they know purely from experience; people are driven by self-interest
People willingly come together to form governments in a social contract
Natural rights
the idea that people are born with certain rights, such as the right to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness, that are not dependent on laws or conventions
Deism
belief in the existence of a supreme being, who does not intervene in the universe.
Social Contract
The State and the People must work together, consent of the governed
Jean-Jacques Rousseau (The Social Contract)
A Genevan writer that wrote The Social Contract, this contract questioned the purpose and place of government and its responsibility for its citizens.
Atheism
philosophical or religious position characterized by disbelief in the existence of a god or any gods
Mary Wollstonecraft (A Vindication of the Rights of Woman)
An early feminist that challenged Jean-Jacques Rousseau, believed that women should have equal access to education, citizenship, and financial independence.
Voltaire (Candide)
A deist that advocated for the freedom of religious, he also believed that society couldn’t progress further.
Skepticism
the theory that certain knowledge is impossible, and all knowledge and belief should be approached with doubt
David Hume
A Skeptic British empiricist philosopher that believed human senses were fallible, and could not be trusted to reliably relay the truth about the world to the mind. He was a Skeptic.
Denis Diderot (Encyclopedie)
An Atheiest that believed that all forms of knowledge are derived from human reason, published the Ecyclopedie
Salons
Gatherings hosted in private homes, often by an influential woman called a salonniere. Where intellectual conversations occured.
Capitalism
an economic and political system in which a country's trade and industry are controlled by private owners for profit.
Adam Smith (An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations)
The “Father of Capitalism” that believed individuals in an economy should make decisions based on self-interest. Argued against mercantilism.
John Wesley
an English cleric, theologian, and evangelist who was a leader of a revival movement within the Church of England known as Methodism.
Methodism
a Protestant Christian tradition that originated in 18th-century Britain and is based on the teachings of John Wesley. Emphasized the individual’s relationship with God and personal experience of salvation.
Variolation
a technique for intentionally infecting people with smallpox to create immunity to the disease
Edward Jenner
Invents an inculcation (vaccine) for smallpox using the cowpox virus to create immunity.
Inoculation
the action of immunizing someone against a disease by introducing infective material, microorganisms, or vaccines into the body.
Lady Mary Wortley Montagu
An English medical pioneer that was responsible for the smallpox inoculation to Western Europe.
Made tiny cuts on the skin and rubbed small amounts of pus from a live smallpox sore.
Rococo
Late Baroque is an exceptionally ornamental and dramatic style of architecture, art and decoration; It was secular, graceful, and hedonistic.
Mozart
a prolific and influential composer of the Classical period. Was most known for opera, symphony, and piano concertos, synthesized Requiem in D Minor.
Consumer Revolution
The Middle Class grew, which lead to more disposable income, and greater demands for consumer goods. There was an increase in commercial production of consuemer goods.
Neoclassicism
a Western cultural movement that emerged in the 1750s in Britain and France and drew inspiration from the art and culture of classical Greece and Rome.
Edict of Toleration
Freedom of religion for Jewish, Protestant, or Greek Orthodox citizens
Joseph II
Monarch of the Austrian Habsburgs (1765-1790) that limited the power of the Catholic Church and created the Edict of Toleration (1782)
Federick II
An Enlightened Monarch of Prussia that believed it was king’s duty was to protect and serve his people through efficient government. He reigned 1740 - 1786 and Created new departments to manage mines, forests, and commerce.
Catherine the Great
Born as a German princess, but selected to marry Peter’s grandson Peter III. Enlightened Monarch who read English and French Enlightenment philosophy. Embraced Enlightenment ideas that could further her goals, but rejected concepts that limited her political power
Enlightened Absolutism
An absolutist monarch who exercises their political power based upon the principles of the Enlightenment. They claim to rule for the well-being of their citizens
Andreas Vesalius
Renaissance anatomist who emphasized the importance of dissecting human bodies; He pioneered the study of human anatomy. one of the first physicians to accurately record and illustrate human anatomy
Agricultural Revolution
unprecedented increase in agricultural production in Britain due to increases in labor and land productivity between the mid-17th and late 19th centuries.
Crop Rotation
the practice of growing a series of different types of crops in the same area across a sequence of growing seasons.
Little Ice Age
climate interval that occurred from the early 14th century through the mid-19th century
Enclosure
wealthy landowners fenced off common land for private use, upsetting commoners and the public
Bank of England
Chartered by William and Mary, allowed the British government to manage its debt and finance its wars effectively. Leading to the British Navy quadrupling in size.
Cottage Industry
A period in time in which goods for sale were produced on a small scale. Included leather manufacturing, silk weaving, and cotton weaving.
Seed Drill
a device used in agriculture that sows seeds for crops by positioning them in the soil and burying them to a specific depth while being dragged by a tractor
Spinning Jenny
a hand-powered, multi-spindle machine that revolutionized the textile industry during the Industrial Revolution
Mixed Farming
a farming system that involves growing crops and raising livestock on the same farm
Commercial Revolution
a massive economic and cultural shift that began in the mid-Middle Ages. Saw the development of a European economy that was based on trade
Middle Passage
the second leg of the triangular trade route where enslaved Africans were transported across the Atlantic Ocean to be sold in the Americas
Triangle Trade
a system of transatlantic trade in the 16th century between Europe, Africa, and the Americas
Plantation Economy
an agricultural system that involves the mass production of cash crops on large farms; those crops are then exported for income.
Tariff
a tax or duty to be paid on a particular class of imports or exports.
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