Infant Child Development Chapter 10att

attachment Q sort (AQS)

affectionate bonds that infants develop toward the important people in their lives and their reliance on loved ones for comfort and protection

conventional

moral reasoning is based on social consensus (stage 3) and societal conventions and expectations about right and wrong (stage 4); conventional reasoning typically is not seen until late childhood, adolescence, or adulthood

cooperative play

socially reciprocal play in which children interact with each other as they engage in a shared activity with the same goal (e.g., children working together on a puzzle)

corporal punishment

refers to the deliberate use of harsh punishment to inflict physical pain or discomfort on a child, such as hitting a child with a belt

cultural socialization

type of racial-ethnic socialization message in which adults educate children about children’s racial or ethnic heritage, promote children’s cultural heritage, and instill racial and ethnic pride in children

delay-of-gratification tasks

measure children’s abilities to resist an immediate temptation in order to receive a later (often larger) reward, which shed light on children’s emotion regulation

display rules

norms about when, where, and how to express emotions in early childhood

effortful control

refers to children’s abilities to modulate attention and inhibit behavior, particularly in stressful situations

egalitarianism

type of racial-ethnic socialization message in which adults highlight similarities and equality among people of all races and ethnicities

electra complex

refers to girls’ competition with their mothers for the attention of their fathers

emotional valence

whether an emotion is positive or negative

emotion coaching

refers to the positive socialization of children’s emotions, such as when parents accept, empathize with, and validate children’s feelings and help children deal with emotionally charged situations

emotion matching tasks

a task in which children are asked to label the emotion of a facial expression

emotion vignettes

Stories that researchers use to test children’s understanding of the causes and consequences of emotions in which children may be asked how a character feels or why a character feels a certain emotion

essentialism

understanding that entities in a category have an underlying shared essence that may not be visually apparent (e.g., bees are insects that sting)

ethnicity

refers to a group’s shared national heritage

externalizing problems

children act out and direct their negative emotions to the external environment, such as by hitting others or throwing objects

gender consistency

the understanding that one’s gender remains the same regardless of superficial changes to appearance and behaviors

gendered parenting

parents’ messages and practices to children about how boys and girls should behave—is especially strong during early childhood compared to other times in development

gender identity

in infancy, gender identity refers to knowing that one is a boy or a girl

gender stability

is the understanding that one’s gender continues over time, for example realizing that boys grow up to be men and girls grow up to be women

hostile aggression

involves actions that intentionally injure someone, physically or otherwise

hostile attribution bias

occurs when a child inaccurately interprets another child’s accidental behaviors as motivated by hostile intentions

id

according to Sigmund Freud, a part of one’s personality comprised of the primitive biological drives that are present from birth

imitation learning

children’s mimicking the actions that they observe in others, a type of social learning first documented by Albert Bandura

initiative versus guilt

the third stage in Erik Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development and self-identity in which young children learn to assert themselves by engaging in social interactions, initiating activities, exploring their environment, and exhibiting competence in social interactions; caregivers who discourage or criticize children may create the alternative sense of guilt in their children during this stage

insecure ambivalent/dependent

attachment style characterized by children who are simultaneously dependent and resistant toward their caregiver

insecure avoidant

attachment status initially identified by Mary Ainsworth that is characterized by infants who do not become distressed by the caregiver’s departure, freely explore the room, are easily comforted by the stranger, and show indifference during reunion with the caregiver

insecure disorganized

attachment style characterized by children who show disordered, confused, and apprehensive behaviors

instrumental aggression

is directed at achieving a particular goal, rather than being motivated by anger. For example, a child may threaten another child to obtain a toy

internalizing problems

problem behaviors based on negative emotions that are directed inwards, which may be expressed in anxiety or depression

marshmallow task

delay-of-gratification experiment developed by Walter Mischel to test children’s ability to not touch or eat a marshmallow as the researcher is out of the room, in order to later receive two marshmallows

mixed emotions

feeling of two or more emotions at the same time

moral domain

encompasses reasoning about others’ welfare and rights, fairness, justice, and equal treatment

oedipus complex

gender identification phenomenon in Sigmund Freud’s stage theory of psychosexual development in which (according to Freud) boys recognize that their strong sexual attraction for their mothers is wrong, experience anguish, and then distance themselves from their mothers and identify with their fathers

parallel play

play where children engage in similar activities, such as building with blocks, but do not interact with one another

post-conventional

moral reasoning is characterized by a growing realization that an individual’s perspective may differ from and take precedence over society’s view (stage 5). Rules are viewed as useful but not absolute (stage 6)

power assertion

control exerted by caregivers over children that is aversive, intrusive, and punitive

pre-conventional

moral reasoning is based on the direct consequences of actions—obedience and punishment (stage 1), and self-interest (stage 2); pre-conventional reasoning is seen in early childhood

preparation for bias

type of racial-ethnic socialization message in which adults communicate to children the risk of discrimination toward their group and offer children coping strategies

preschool attachment classification system (PACS)

an assessment of attachment in young children; children experience brief episodes in which they are separated and reunited with their caregivers, and researchers rate children’s behaviors to classify children as secure, insecure avoidant, insecure ambivalent/dependent, or insecure disorganized

promotion of mistrust

type of racial-ethnic socialization message identified in which adults communicate to children distrust of people from other groups (e.g., warnings about other racial groups)

prosocial behaviors

behaviors such as sharing, cooperating, and helping that benefit another person

psychological domain

focuses on children’s understanding of the mental states, beliefs, desires, emotions, and intentions of self and others

race

refers to a group’s shared phenotypical characteristics, such as skin color

racial and ethnic socialization

caregivers’ socialization practices and messages to children about race and ethnicity

relational aggression

type of nonphysical aggression in which harm is caused by hurting someone’s relationships or social status, such as by threatening to withdraw a friendship, withdrawing a friendship, ignoring a peer, or excluding a peer

resource allocation studies

studies conducted by developmental researchers to examine children’s moral decisions around equitable distribution by asking children to distribute coins, treats, or other rewards to story characters and children from other social groups

secure

attachment style characterized by children who are happy and confident to explore their surroundings, using their caregiver as a secure base, and who are positive when reunited with their caregiver

social identification

the cognitive development view contends that once a young boy realizes that he is a boy, will always be a boy, and that boys have certain characteristics, behaviors, and attitudes that distinguish them from girls, he will attempt to look, act, and feel like other boys that he observes, a process referred to as

societal domain

involves social systems, organization, and conventions, such as social norms about how to behave in a classroom