all wildlife

bird species

• new world vultures, accipitridae (hawks, eagles, kites, harriers, buzzards, old world vultures), falconidae (falcons), secretary birds

bird info

• They may perceive UV light and have a visual friend of 250 degrees, 50 degrees of which is binocular

• Two planes of vision (binocular and monocular)

• In most, the sense of smell is poorly developed except in vultures

• Overgrowth of the upper beak is seen in raptors on a diet exclusively of day-old chicks

• Molting in vultures - affected by ambient temp which can speed it up or corticosteroids which may retard the progression

• Raptors use feet to capture prey, however, vultures do not need to capture live animals so their talons are blunt

bird reproduction system

• Many have two ovaries and two oviducts

• The use of organochlorines has been restricted since 1970s

• They can be affected by: salmonella, campylobacter infections and cannibalism

bird reproduction

• Vultures are conventionally dimorphic

• Breeding activity is stimulated in temperate regions by decreasing day length prior to increasing day length

rattlesnakes

• Rattlesnakes are ovoviviparous (give birth to live young after carrying eggs inside)

• Gestation length of rattlesnake: 5-6 weeks

Why do flamingoes stand on one leg?

• how they thermoregulate temperature

flamingo info

• Have binocular ability on the eyes where they can see the tip of their beaks

• Live in large colonies

• Can survive in harsh conditions like high salinity and alkalinity

• At 4-6 years, they turn from gray-brown to pink which is a sign of sexual maturity

• Plumage color is caused by carotenoids found in algae, crustaceans and mollusks

• Divided into two groups depending on their diet:

  • Phoenicopterus species: possess a shallow bill and feed primarily on arthropods and mollusks

    • Deep-billed Phoenicoparrus and Phoeniconaias: feed on algae and diatoms

• Flamingos “walk-feed” moving forward with the bill in the substrate

flamingo uropygial gland

• excrete preen oils containing carotenoids which are applied as additional cosmetic coloration of feathers

flamingo reproduction

• Lay one egg and it is then incubated for 28-30 days and males/females share the upkeep

• Group courtship display is performed by box sexes

• Fed with “crop milk”

pelican info

• Order Pelecaniformes: 4 toe webbed feet

• Have a unique gular pouch which lets them keep prey in the mouth but let water out

  • Also used for courtship displays

• Among the largest flying birds and fly in groups

pelican reproduction

• Mature white pelicans have a keraninized growth on the dorsal maxilla during the breeding season and this growth is shed at the end of the season

• Both sexes incubate eggs and participate in rearing chicks

lions behavior

• Lioness hunts and males wait

• Live in prides of 3-30 individual (pride size dictated by prey availability)

• Females may stay or leave as a group and form another pride

• Young males disperse from their birth pride and form “coalitions” until they are old enough to take over a pride – then they rule that pride for 2-3 years

• Territorial male gets to end of reign and when new one comes in, they kill the cubs from other generation

  • This is because… lactation produces anestrus (if male comes in and females have cubs… that female won’t have estrus and he can’t procreate)

lioness reproduction

• Gestational length: 110 days

  • Cubs remain with mother for 2 years

  • 1-4 cubs per female

  • Sexually mature between 3-4 years - conceive for the first time at 32-33 months with most lioness having given birth by age 4 years

  • Mating occurs every 15-30 min for several days but lasts only about a minute per time

lioness estrus

Onset of estrus is response to within-pride mechanisms:

• Estrus in pride mates as well as loss of cubs from

  infanticide at pride takeover

• Polyestrous - estrus lasts 4-7 days with an interval b/w

  periods of 2 weeks and up to more than a year

• Have postpartum estrus but do not conceive if litter

  survives

  • But if there is loss a new one can be produced

    within 4 months

lion reproduction

• Sexually mature around 26 months but unlikely to breed before age 4 or 5 due to lack of opportunity (not large enough to take over a pride and its breeding rights)

feline species

• 10 species, all with retractable claws except cheetahs that need traction

• Mostly nocturnal/crepuscular

feline reproduction

feline hormones

feline estrous cycle

• Proestrus -> estrus -> diestrus -> anestrus

  • Proestrus: <1 day and associated with presence of ovarian follicles increasing circulating estrogens

  • Estrus: peak estradiol and male mounting/coitus

    • Behaviors: vocalization, lordosis, rolling, rubbing, foot treading

    • MULTIPLE INTROMISSION: often over several days and are necessary to release GnRH and subsequent LH -> cascade causes final follicular and oocyte maturation and result in ovulation after mating

• Diestrus: 1+ CL produce progesterone that stays elevated regardless of conception or not

• Anestrus: circulating estrogens at nadir

reproduction

seasonally polyestrous & polygynous

births occur

all throughout the year but peak during seasonal rainfall

zebra gestation period & interval between births

-360-390 days

-18 months

zebra puberty

4-5 yrs and reproductively active until 21 yrs

zebra plains

• black and white stripes

• some with or without shadow stripes superimposed on white stripes

• stripes extend on to underparts

zebra mountain

• have no shadow stripes

• striping does not extend onto the belly and a small dewlap develops on the throat

• distinctive grid-iron pattering on the rump and tail

zebra cape mountain

endangered

zebra grevy’s

largest of the zebras with black stripe from the tail all along the spine and densely stripes in the legs

zebra behavior

• usually in small herds of 8

• fillies rejected from herds at around 18 months

• colts at 2 years

Longevity of CL in white rhinos

The extended lifespan of the corpus luteum in white rhinos leads to two cycles, with premature lysis of the CL, resulting in a dichotomy between short cycles and long cycles.

Testicular fibrosis and seminoma

Male white rhinos may develop testicular fibrosis and seminoma, impacting their reproductive health.

Capture protocol

The recommended capture protocol for white rhinos involves using an opioid in combination with a tranquilizer or sedative to safely immobilize the animal.

Avoid low dose etorphine

It is crucial to avoid administering low doses of etorphine when capturing white rhinos due to safety concerns and the need for effective immobilization.

Standing in front of immobilized black rhino

It is advised not to stand in front of an immobilized black rhino during capture procedures to prevent potential risks and ensure safety for all involved.

black rhino

• live in shrubs\forests - can go up to 3-5 days without water

• hooked-lipped

• browsers

• solitary

• polyestrous

• estrous cycle: 20-40 days

• gestational length: 450 days(15 months)

• calf walks beside or behind mother

  • calf is rejected at 3-4 yrs due to new calf

white rhino

• live in plains, short grasses

• distinct hump on neck

• square-lipped

• grazers

• more social than hook-lipped rhinos

• two types of estrous cycle: 4 or 10 weeks

  • luteal activity is lacking, no regular ovulation: impedes successful captive breeding programs

• gestation: 480 days(16 months)

• females give birth away from group

• calves walk ahead of female

hindgut fermenters

require access to water frequently or else they dehydrate

horns

1 or 2, made of keratin filaments

elephant article key points

• once aquatic animals

• have mitochondria similar to manatees

• have intra-abdominal testes because of stress of cold water

• no pampiniform plexus that cools sperm but still able to maintain temp of 94-97 F

• no epididymis - primary site of sperm storage is ampulla

elephant basic info

• herd species

• communicate with complex vocalizations

  • infrasound

  • chemical signaling via hormones, proteins and volatile compounds released in urine, feces, breath and secretion from the temporal gland

elephant behavior

• matriarchial

• young cows remain with birth group before eventually separating to make their own family

• young bulls at puberty leave group or are driven off

• up to 50% of elephants die before reaching 15y

elephant female reproductive tract

• bull stays near the cow to guard her from other males and occassionally mates with her with courtship lasting 1 hr to 4 days

• inter-partum interval averages 5 years

• the semen is deposited in the urogenital canal

• hymen is perforated only after the delivery of the first calf

elephant bulls exhibit the flehmen response

male uses trunk to bring urine to vomeronasal receptors in the mouth to determine if a female is receptive

elephant estrous cycle

• 14-16 weeks

• 4-6 week follicular phase when progesterone is low

• 8-10 week luteal phase when progesterone is high

elephant LH surge

• two surges of LH during follicular phase

• first LH surge is the anovulatory surge(no ovulation) and occurs roughly 2 weeks after progesterone drops

• When progesterone comes down have her first LH peak… she won’t ovulate just yet… 21 days after that she will have a second LH peak and THEN finally ovulate shortly after

• So you want to monitor for the FIRST LH peak and know that 21 days after that she will have a second and ovulate shortly after (warning system) - blood is collected daily into order to capture the first 24 hour rise in LH and this surge is used as a 3 week notification to prepare for artificial insemination during second LH surge

elephant male reproductive tract

• elephants testicles are intra-abdominal, no epididymis

• ampulla is the primary storage site for sperm

• only older and larger bulls mate

• Bulls are sexually mature between 10-15 years but become sexually active when >35 years of age

elephant bulls

• experience a period of heightened aggressive state called MUSTH – complex hormonal phenomenon

• Large amounts of thick discharge from temporal glands seen in both sexes - dark liquid tracts on sides of face

• During musth, a complex array of chemicals are released from breath, ruine and temporal glands

• Damp patches on hind legs from urine

• In males this signals an increase in testosterone

• Low frequency vocalizations to announce presence - “musth rumbles”

elephant gestation and parturition

• 22 months gestation

• Lactational anestrous is 20 months (this is the time a mother is lactating and therefore, she will not cycle)

• Entire herd cares for calves (not just mothers)

  • Are fully weaned only around 5-6 years causing the lactational anestrus (this is why there is such a long period between calves)

• Sexual maturity occurs between age 4-12 years ● Intercalf interval is 4-6 years

• Gestation is 21-24 months (average 659 days)

• 5a-reduced-pregnane is the primary progestogen in elephants (NOT progesterone)

common hippos

live in loose, social, polygamous groups of females with offspring and territorial males

pygmy hippos

found solitary or in pairs and have a nocturnal lifestyle close to water

hippo reproduction

• Sexually mature at 3 years of age

• Females can have up to 25 calves in 40-year life span

• Inter-calving periods of 1.5-2 years

• 30-day cycles and are polyestrous

• Placenta is Epitheliochorial

  • Important there is colostrum when calf is born

• In males, the testes are partially descended and remain in inguinal canal

hippo contraceptives

females:

• Using synthetic progestins such as melengestrol acetate (MGA) in the feed or medroxyprogesterone acetate (MPA) via shots

  • Disadvantages: must be administered on a regular basis and the duration of efficacy for MGA is 24 hour (so administered daily) and for MPA it is 6 weeks

males:

• castrate (no scrotum though, so you take testicles out)

giraffe species

• giraffe and okapi(more solitary and are smaller)

• browsers - use tongues to get leaves

• co-exist with other grazers or small browsers

why is the giraffe tongue dark

to protect it from the sun, they spend a lot of time with their tongue out

giraffe social

• calf mortality is high

• sociable and found in small groups of females\young

• males are solitary when adults

• have a system of valves that avoid sudden changes in blood pressure

giraffe reproduction

• non-seasonal breeders with 15 day cycles

• gestation: 420-468 for giraffes, 414-491 for okapi

• no interbreeding between giraffe and okapi due to karyotypes

giraffe females and males

• female has bicornuate uterus

• penis is fibroelastic

• aim is to have young stand and nurse as fast as possible, within an hour

• retained placenta occurs with some frequency - often when calf is stillborn or dies within first day

buffalo species: savanna

• Up to 700 kg

• Up to thousands in herds

buffalo species: forest

• Half the size

• Not so much seasonality in reproduction because food availability is more constant throughout the year

• Can interbreed with savanna buffalo

• Smaller herds up to 20

buffalo species both:

• Drink in early morning and late afternoons

• Predominantly grazers in dense grass but some browse

buffalo reproduction

• Estrus: 5-6 days

• Cycle: 23 days

• Females remain with mother until they produce own young but males leave their mother after 2 years to join a bachelor group

bovids classification

• order Cetartiodactyla - Cetacea, Hippopotamidae, Camelidae, Suidae, Tayassuidae, Tragulidae, Moschidae, Cervidae, Giraffidae, Bovidae, and Antilocapridae.

bovids subfamilies

• Aepycerotinae, Alcelaphinae, Antilopinae, Bovinae, Cephalophinae, Caprinae, Hippotraginae, and Reduncinae

bovids are:

even-toed

bovid estrus & luteal phase

• 24-72 hr estrus period

• 18-25 day luteal phase

oryx physical description & info

• black markings on face and rapier-shape horns(both male and female)

• gemsbok(extensively marked with black) - is the largest

• habitat: dry plains - desert animals(water dependent)

oryx behavior

• Big groups of 50-200 and migrate in times of rain (big groups of males AND females)

• Feed when it is cooler so early morning and late afternoon

• Predominantly grazers but also browsers

• Feed late at night or early morning to maximize both food and water sources as plants increase water content at certain periods of the 24h day

oryx reproduction

• Breeding is year round depending on water availability

• Breed every 9 months

• Polygynous – one resident bull of herd mates with receptive females

• Female calve in private - leaves herd and hides calf for 2-3 weeks of life visiting and nursing it

• There is no specific breeding season for gemsbok but there is a reproductive synchrony among females

oryx flehmen and urine testing

• Flehmen or urine testing – olfactory testing of estrous status of female ○

• Laufeinschlag – courting ritual preceding copulation

• How males test the receptiveness of the female and was found to stimulate the receptive female to stand and copulate (male beats up either one of his forelegs between or alongside the hind legs of the female)

oryx adaptation

• Can raise body temperature to 45C to prevent perspiration and preserve hydration!

• Also a network of capillaries in the nose so when they take a breath, there is a cool down of blood that is traveling to the brain and prevents overheating of the brain

• Reduced sexual dimorphism

sable habitat

• Light woodland called miombo (mixture of bush and grassland)

• Avoid open, grassy plains because they like the protection of grassland

• Edge species: favor areas b/w wooded savanna and grassland

sable behavior

• Like morning and late afternoon hours for activity

• Among females there is a dominance hierarchy based partly on seniority

• They are grazers but during dry season they may browse occasionally – very water dependent and like to visit mineral licks to gain salt and trace elements that are in short supply in granitic soils

• Main predator: leopard

oryx gestation & breeding

• 9-month gestation period

• Seasonal breeding during the rainy season (Sep/Oct)

• After birth, females leave calf hidden in tall grass/bush returning 1-2x day to suckle

oryx cycles

• Estrous cycle: 24.2 +/- 0.9 days

• Luteal phase: 18 days

• Foreleg lifting is used by courting males to prod reluctant females