roots of western

Prehistory

The period of human activity before written records existed.

History

The study of recorded events of human societies.

Genesis 1‑3

The first three chapters of the Bible’s book of Genesis, describing creation, the Garden of Eden, the fall of humanity.

Paleolithic

“Old Stone Age.” A prehistoric period when humans used simple stone tools and lived as hunter‑gatherers.

Neolithic

“New Stone Age.” A later prehistoric period characterized by agriculture, polished stone tools, and settled village life.

Civilization

A complex human society with cities, social stratification, specialized labor, centralized government, and record keeping.

Cuneiform

One of the earliest writing systems, developed by the Sumerians in Mesopotamia, using wedge-shaped characters impressed on clay tablets.

Gilgamesh

A legendary king of Uruk; hero of the Epic of Gilgamesh, one of the earliest works of literature.

Enkidu

A wild man created by the gods in the Epic of Gilgamesh; becomes Gilgamesh’s friend and companion.

Sargon

Often Sargon of Akkad; founded the Akkadian Empire (c. 24th/23rd century BCE), one of the first known empires.

Hammurabi

King of Babylon (c. 1792–1750 BCE), famous for the “Code of Hammurabi,” a set of laws inscribed on a stele.

Lex Talionis

“Law of retaliation” — for example, “an eye for an eye.” A principle in ancient law codes (including Hammurabi’s).

Old Babylonians

Refers to the period and people under Babylonian dominance, especially under Hammurabi’s dynasty.

Assyrians

An empire in Mesopotamia known for military power, administrative innovations, and harsh rule.

Nineveh

Capital city of the Assyrian Empire.

Persian Wars

A series of conflicts in the 5th century BCE between Greek city‑states and the Persian Empire (e.g., battles at Marathon, Thermopylae, Salamis).

Mesopotamia

“Land between rivers” (Tigris & Euphrates). A cradle of early civilizations (Sumer, Akkad, Babylon).

Ziggurat

A stepped, pyramid-like temple structure in Mesopotamian cities, often dedicated to a city’s chief deity.

Nile River

The major river running through Egypt; central to Egyptian agriculture, transport, and civilization.

Old Kingdom

The period in Egyptian history (c. 2686–2181 BCE) noted for the building of the pyramids and strong central rule.

Middle Kingdom

Egyptian period (c. 2055–1650 BCE) of re-unification, stability, and cultural prosperity.

New Kingdom

Egyptian period (c. 1550–1070 BCE), time of empire expansion and great pharaohs like Ramses II, Hatshepsut.

Pharaoh

The ruler or king of ancient Egypt, considered both political and divine authority.

Hieroglyphics

Egyptian writing system using pictorial symbols.

Rosetta Stone

A stele inscribed in multiple scripts (Greek, Demotic, Hieroglyphic); crucial to deciphering Egyptian hieroglyphs.

Mummification

The preservation process for the deceased in ancient Egypt, intended to prepare the body for the afterlife.

Amon‑Ra

A major Egyptian deity combining Amon (hidden god) and Ra (sun god).

Akhenaton

An Egyptian pharaoh (Amenhotep IV) who attempted to shift Egypt toward the worship of a single god (Aton).

Hatshepsut

One of the few female pharaohs of Egypt, known for building projects and trade expeditions.

Phoenicians

Ancient maritime people in the eastern Mediterranean, known for their trade networks and development of a Phoenician alphabet.

Indo‑Europeans

A widespread linguistic and cultural group whose languages spread across Europe and parts of Asia.

Hebrews

Ancient people/tribe historically tied to Israel and Judah; ancestors of Jewish people.

Abraham

According to the Bible, the patriarch called by God to leave his homeland and become the father of many nations (Hebrews).

Moses

Biblical leader who led the Israelites out of Egypt (the Exodus) and received the Law (Torah).

Exodus

The departure of the Israelites from Egypt under Moses’ leadership.

Divided Kingdom

After King Solomon, the Israelite kingdom split into two: Israel in the north and Judah in the south.

Exile

The period when the Israelites (especially Judah) were taken captive by foreign powers (e.g., Babylonian exile).

Minoan Civilization

An advanced Bronze Age civilization centered on Crete, known for palaces (e.g., Knossos) and maritime trade.

Minotaur

A mythical creature (half man, half bull) that lived in the labyrinth in Crete; associated with the myth of Theseus.

Troy

Ancient city in what is now Turkey; site of the Trojan War in Greek myth (Homer’s Iliad).

Greek Dark Ages

A period (c. 1100–800 BCE) after Mycenaean collapse, with reduced population, loss of writing, and cultural decline.

Homer

Legendary Greek poet, author of the Iliad and Odyssey.

Hesiod

Ancient Greek poet known for Theogony (origins of gods) and Works and Days.

Greek Alphabet

Writing system derived from Phoenician; allowed broad literacy and record keeping in Greece.

Hoplite

A heavily armed foot soldier in ancient Greece, typically carrying a shield (hoplon) and spear.

Athens

A major Greek city-state known for its democracy, philosophy, arts, and sea power.

Cleisthenes

Athenian leader (c. late 6th century BCE) credited with reforming Athens’ constitution and laying foundations for democracy.

Ionia

Region on the coast of Asia Minor (modern Turkey) with Greek cities (e.g. Miletus), often involved in Greek–Persian conflicts.

Sparta

A militaristic Greek city-state known for its strict discipline, warrior society, and dual kingship.

Thermopylae

Narrow pass where 300 Spartans (and allies) held off a much larger Persian force in 480 BCE.

Salamis

Naval battle in 480 BCE where the Greek fleet defeated the Persians.

Plataea

Battle in 479 BCE where Greek land forces defeated the remaining Persian army.

Pericles

Influential Athenian statesman in the 5th century BCE who led Athens during its “Golden Age.”

Aspasia

A woman in classical Athens, partner of Pericles, known for her intellect and involvement in political and cultural circles.

Peloponnesian War

Conflict (431–404 BCE) between Athens (and its allies) and Sparta (and its allies) for dominance in Greece.

Alcibiades

Athenian general and politician who played multiple sides during the Peloponnesian War, famous for shifting allegiances.

Strategos

Greek term for a general or military commander (plural: strategoi).

Ostraca

Pottery shards or pieces of broken pottery used in ancient Greece for writing (e.g., voting to ostracize someone).

Demos

Greek term meaning “the people” — foundation for terms like democracy.

Hippocrates

Ancient Greek physician often called the “father of medicine.”

Sappho

Greek poetess from the island of Lesbos, known for lyric poetry about personal emotions, love.

Herodotus

Greek historian, often called the “Father of History,” who wrote Histories.

Pythagoras

Greek philosopher and mathematician, known for the Pythagorean theorem and a philosophical/religious school.

Sophists

Itinerant teachers in ancient Greece who taught rhetoric, virtue, and persuasive speech (often criticized by philosophers).

Sophocles

Greek tragedian, author of plays like Oedipus Rex and Antigone.

Euripides

Greek tragedian known for plays with strong female characters and psychological depth (e.g. Medea).

Aristophanes

Comic playwright of ancient Athens, known for satirical plays like Lysistrata.

Oedipus Rex

A tragedy by Sophocles in which Oedipus unwittingly kills his father and marries his mother, fulfilling prophecy.

Lysistrata

A comedic play by Aristophanes in which Greek women withhold sexual privileges to force men to end a war.

Socrates

Greek philosopher who asked probing questions, taught through dialogue, and was sentenced to death for “corrupting youth.”

Plato

Student of Socrates; founder of the Academy; wrote dialogues such as Republic.

Republic

One of Plato’s major works; discusses justice, ideal society, philosopher‑king, and the tripartite soul.

Allegory of the Cave

A metaphor in Plato’s Republic illustrating how people mistake shadows (illusions) for reality and the philosopher’s ascent to true knowledge.

Aristotle

Student of Plato; teacher of Alexander the Great; wrote on many topics (ethics, politics, metaphysics, logic).Politics

Politics

Aristotle’s work analyzing various forms of government and how communities should best be organized.

Forms

In Platonic philosophy, the ideal, perfect, eternal “forms” or “ideas” behind the imperfect physical world.

Lyceum

The school founded by Aristotle in Athens.

Academy

The school founded by Plato in Athens.

Thucydides

A Greek historian and author of History of the Peloponnesian War, emphasizing empirical methods and critical analysis.

Writing and Communication

how writing (cuneiform, hieroglyphs, alphabet) shaped recordkeeping, power, culture.

Christian Perspective

how Christian worldview intersects with history, morality, interpretation of ancient texts.

Nature of History

what counts as history, reliability, bias, cause and effect.

Literature, Art and Culture

myths, epics, plays, architecture as reflections of worldview and values.

Reliability of Sources

how historians assess credibility, biases, multiple accounts.

History and the Bible

interplay, conflicts, harmonies between secular ancient history and biblical narrative.

Mythology and Reality

distinguishing myth from historical fact and understanding what myths reveal about a culture.

Social Organization / Politics

how societies structure authority, citizenship, class, governance.

Religion and Worldview

the role of religion (polytheism, monotheism) in social order and worldview.

Social Stratification

class systems, elites vs common people, power distribution.

Family Life

roles, kinship, lineage, inheritance in ancient societies.