social semester a second year

functional approach

attitudes are stable and object related associations stored and evoked in memory

constructive approach

attitudes are temporary evolutions of an objects constructed at a particular time in a particular context

attitudes (functional)

relatively enduring organisation of beliefs, feelings and behavioural tendencies towards objects, groups, events or symbols

knowledge function

information, understanding the environment, search for meaning, helps to predict and organise the social world

value-expressive function

self-image: displays of what we see as important

social-adjustive function

self-protection: provide a barrier against harsh realities

utilitarian function

usefulness: maximise benefits and minimise costs to the individual

Fishbein and Ajzen

theory of reasoned action

theory of reasoned action

model based on behaviour being a function of attitudes and subjective norms, which then translate into behavioural intention

Triandis

argued that attitude determines behaviour more than norms in individualist cultures, and vice versa for collectivist

Ajzen

theory of planned behavior

theory of planned behaviour

theory of reasoned action with added third category of perceived behavioural control

attitudes (constructive)

argues that people make up attitudes based on relevant diagnosis of information available in a given context

Payne et al

said that contextual factors such as complexity of context, other options, and the framing of the question impact the constructive view on attitudes

Hamlin

challenged TPB from constructive perspective - experiment on meat purchases showed differences between abstract and actual attitudes

mere exposure

the tendency to prefer stimuli (including but not limited to people) that we have seen more frequently

attitude formation

- mere exposure
- classical conditioning
- mass media effects

Festinger

cognitive dissonance theory

cognitive dissonance theory

argues that when we are aware that our cognitions are inconsistent, we feel psychological tension

focal cognition

cognition that is most resistant to change - often the recent behaviour as opposed to feelings, other behaviours, attitudes, etc.

free-choice paradigm

whichever item you chose is then seen as better than the other options - reduces buyers' remorse

positive spreading

reducing aversive feelings by emphasising positive aspects of choice and negative aspects of rejected choice

Festinger and Carlsmith

Conducted the classic experiment about forced compliance paradigm - $1 vs $20, those who were paid a dollar to lie would change their attitude about the tasks they were asked to lie about in order to justify the lying, those who were paid 20 didn't have to justify it, the 20 was justification enough

counter attitudinal advocacy

stating an opinion or attitude that runs counter to one's private belief or attitude to get them to change their attitude

effort justification paradigm

centers on the amount of effort or sacrifice required: if the goal is not worth the effort you've already put in, you big-up the goal to justify it

self-perception theory

challenge to CDT, says that we observe the self like we observe others

vicarious dissonance

your attitude can change from someone else engaging in dissonance reduction

Sakai

vicarious dissonance

Petty and Cacioppo

elaboration likelihood model

elaboration likelihood model

model of persuasion stating that people will either elaborate on the persuasive message (central route - more long lasting) or fail to elaborate on it and be persuaded by superficial cues (peripheral route - more temporary)

1. two routes
2. situational and personality factors
3. different effects
4. persistence and resistance

4 key assumptions of elaboration likelihood model

elaboration continuum

persuasion processes fall along a continuum of cognitive processing

Willingness or Ability To Think

WATT processors, need for cognition

Booth-Butterfield

WATT creator

Chaiken

heuristic-systematic model

systematic processing

processing that is thoughtful, deliberate, analytical

heuristic processing

processing reliant on simple rules

William James

worked on ideas of the self

Berger and Luckmann

say we are born into a culture which influences us on an implicit level - highest form of socialisation

implicit self

the self that is influences by processes outside of conscious awareness

bias blind spot

the tendency to think that other people are more susceptible to attributional biases in their thinking than we are

self-discrepancy theory

holds that we have three selves:
1) actual self: way we see ourselves as we currently are
2) ideal self: person we would like to be
3) ought self: our representation of the way others think we should be
- the closer these 3 are to one another, the higher our self-esteem or self-worth will be

contingent self-esteem

self-esteem based on the approval of others or on social comparisons

self-verification theory

theory that people need to know their true self is what others see (and is seen positively)

social comparison theory

theory that we seek to evaluate our abilities and beliefs by comparing them with those of others

self-evaluation maintenance theory

The idea that people experience dissonance when someone close to us outperforms us in an area that is central to our self-esteem. This dissonance can be reduced by becoming less close to the person, changing our behavior so that we now outperform them, or deciding that the area is not that important to us after all.

meaning maintenance model

People are compelled to make things meaningful, and apply values in order to make things meaningful

compensatory control

psychological strategies people use to preserve a sense of nonrandom order when personal control is compromised - believe that external groups are in control

terror management theory

proposes that faith in one's worldview and the pursuit of self-esteem provide protection against a deeply rooted fear of death

self-affirmation theory

the idea that people can maintain an overall sense of self-worth following psychologically threatening information by affirming a valued aspect of themselves unrelated to the threat

cognitive appraisal

the interpretation of an event that helps shape emotional experiences

somatic marker hypothesis

Past sensory experiences become stored in our brains in association with specific events and situations. When they occur over time, the brain triggers the same emotional experiences

Haidt's social intuitionist theory

said that moral judgments are rooted in emotion and gut-level impressions

Fredrickson

broaden and build theory

broaden and build theory

theory proposing that happiness predisposes us to think more openly

Heider

attribution theory

internal attribution

the inference that a person is behaving in a certain way because of something about the person, such as attitude, character, or personality

external attribution

The inference that a person is behaving a certain way because of something about the situation they are in; the assumption is that most people would respond the same way in that situation

correspondent inference theory

A theory that states that people pay closer attention to intentional behavior than accidental behavior when making attributions, especially if the behavior is unexpected.

Kelly's covariation model of attribution

if an action can be attributed to a stimulus, internal attributions are less likely
- more likely if everyone responds in the same way or the person doesn't usually act that way

fundamental attribution error

tendency to attribute others' behavior to their dispositions and our own behaviors to our situations

self-serving bias

a readiness to perceive oneself favorably

naive realism

the idea that the way we perceive others and the world is the truth - if people disagree, we see them as misinformed etc

outgroup homogeneity effect

the tendency to view outgroup members as less varied than ingroup members

Epley's Trifactor Theory of Anthropomorphism

Loneliness increases the belief that non-human animals can think and feel. Efficacy motivation increases this belief as well. Salience of anthropomorphic ideas also increases this belief

Eagly

found men to be stereotypes on agentic traits, and women to be stereotypes on communal traits

benevolent sexism

acceptance of positive stereotypes of males and females that leads to unequal treatment e.g. women should be protected

hostile sexism

feelings of hostility toward women reflected by negative assumptions about women

ambivalent sexism

a form of sexism characterized by attitudes about women that reflect both negative, resentful beliefs and feelings and affectionate and chivalrous but potentially patronizing beliefs and feelings

stereotype content model

model that says groups are stereotyped on 2 primary dimensions - warmth and competence

precarious manhood

theory that men are motivated to maintain their sense of masculinity as it requires constant social approval

aggression and social perception

Men think women think aggression is more attractive than it is

objectification theory

the theory that girls learn to consider their bodies as objects and commodities - their worth is equated to their appearance which is internalised

self-objectification

the tendency to see oneself primarily as an object in the eyes of others

interpersonal objectification

How people perceive other people, and in particular women, depends on what they are focusing on

Cikara and Fiske

Men who scored high on hostile sexism had higher levels of interaction in brain areas associated with object manipulation when viewing images of naked women

Baumeister and Leary

say that people join groups because they have a core need to belong

social identity theory

theory in which the formation of a person's identity within a particular social group is explained by social categorization, social identity, and social comparison

sociometer theory

the theory that self-esteem is a gauge that monitors our social interactions and sends us signals as to whether our behavior is acceptable to others

uncertainty-identity theory

the theory that people join and identify with groups in order to reduce negative feelings of uncertainty about themselves and others

infrahumanisation

Secondary emotions are things that people perceive of as unique to humans. More easily attributed to to people in your own group than outgroup members

minimal group paradigm

an experimental paradigm in which researchers create groups based on arbitrary and seemingly meaningless criteria and then examine how the members of these "minimal groups" are inclined to behave toward one another

moral foundations theory

a theory proposing that there are five evolved, universal moral domains in which specific emotions guide moral judgments:
- harm
- fairness
- in-group
- authority
- purity

emergent norm theory

theory of collective action emphasizing the influence of keynoters in promoting new behavioral norms

contagion theory

theory of collective action claiming that collective action arises because of people's tendency to conform to the behavior of others with whom they are in close contact - development of a hive mind, people get swept up in the group

system justification theory

the theory that people are motivated to see the existing sociopolitical system as desirable, fair, and legitimate - causes conflict in low SES people between system justification and group loyalty

optimal distinctiveness

People strive to achieve a balance between their uniqueness and their need to belong

cognitive miser

a term used to describe people's reluctance to do much extra thinking - people are more likely to use stereotypes when the brain is taxed e.g. tired, time pressure, etc.

active behaviours

predicted by perceived warmth

passive behaviours

predicted by perceived competence

social dominance orientation

a motivation to have one's group dominate other social groups

Right-wing authoritarianism

people who show a strong tendency to follow authority

contact hypothesis

The idea that stereotypes and prejudice toward a group will diminish as contact with the group increases.

I-sharing

feeling that another person "shares" your subjective experience

animalistic dehumanisation

denying a person traits that people perceive to be unique to humans as opposed to animals

mechanistic dehumanisation

denying a person or group traits that people perceive to be unique to humans as opposed to machines or objects

Martens and Kosloff

conducted bug study on desensitisation and aggression - you kill more if you have been told to practice than those who hadn't, and would feel less guilt

altruism

unselfish regard for the welfare of others

Batson

Empathy-Altruism hypothesis

empathy-altruism hypothesis

the idea that when we feel empathy for a person, we will attempt to help that person for purely altruistic reasons, regardless of what we have to gain