A&P Test 1-4

Which organ system produces immune cells and has a role in fluid balance?

• → Lymphatic system

Which organ system protects organs, allows for support and movement, and also plays a key role in blood formation?

• → Skeletal system

Which type of tissue covers the body’s surface?

• → Epithelial tissue

Bone, cartilage, and adipose tissue are all types of what tissue?

• → Connective tissue

Sagittal

• divides body into left and right

Frontal (coronal)

divides body into front and back

Transverse

divides body into top and bottom

Supine

• lying face up

Prone

lying face down

Anterior (ventral):

front

Posterior (dorsal):

back

Medial

toward the midline

Lateral

away from the midline

Proximal

closer to point of origin

Distal

• farther from point of origin

Superior

above

Inferior

below

Cranial cavity:

brain

Spinal cavity:

spinal cord

Thoracic cavity

heart and lungs

Abdominal cavity:

digestive organs

Pelvic cavity

bladder and reproductive organs

Hypochondriac region:

Upper left and right abdominal areas, below the ribs

These elements make up more than 96% of the human body:

Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen

These elements make up the greatest percentage of the body’s weight:

• → Oxygen and hydrogen (mainly in water)

What are covalent bonds?

Bonds where atoms share electrons

What is metabolism?

• → All chemical reactions in the body

What is catabolism?

• → Breaking down molecules to release energy

A person is in a catabolic state:

• → They're breaking down tissue or molecules (e.g., during illness, fasting)

Measure acidity or alkalinity:

• pH scale

• 6 acidic, 7 neutral, 8 basic/alkaline

pH of human blood:

7.35 to 7.45

Four main organic compounds in the human body:

Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids

Body’s main energy source:

Glucose (a carbohydrate)

How do cells acquire energy

Through cellular respiration of glucose, mainly in mitochondria

Cellular structure helps sweep particles along a path:

Cilia

Based on their function, where would you find microvilli

• In the small intestine (for nutrient absorption)

Water pressure that develops in a solution as a result of osmosis:

• → Osmotic pressure

Which type of intravenous fluid would you expect most patients to receive?

• → Isotonic solution (e.g., normal saline)

What force drives the process of filtration in the body’s capillaries?

• → Blood (hydrostatic) pressure

Sodium-potassium pump and action:

• Moves 3 sodium ions out and 2 potassium ions in, using ATP; helps maintain cellular electrical balance

What are nucleotides?

Building blocks of DNA and RNA

What determines genetic code?

The sequence of nitrogenous bases (A, T, C, G in DNA; A, U, C, G in RNA)

How does RNA differ from DNA?

• RNA is single-stranded, has uracil instead of thymine, and uses ribose sugar

Chromosomes form during which phase of mitosis

Prophase

The chromosomes of a cell divide during which phase of mitosis?

Anaphase

What is the human microbiome?

The collection of microbes (bacteria, viruses, fungi) that live in and on the human body

Most common way that a person’s microbiome becomes disrupted:

Antibiotic use

The main finding of the Human Microbiome Project:

Healthy individuals have vastly different microbiomes, but key functions are shared

When does the most significant step in building a microbiome occur

At birth (especially during vaginal delivery)

Children born by Caesarean section and microbiomes:

• They tend to have less diverse microbiomes and more skin bacteria early on

Critical period for establishing a microbiome to enhance neurodevelopment and lifelong health:

2 years old is the critical window for microbiome development.

Threats to the microbiome

Antibiotics, poor diet, lack of breastfeeding, over-sanitization, physiological stress

What advice would you give to a new mother considering breastfeeding?

Breastfeeding supports the baby’s immune system and helps build a strong, healthy microbiome

Exclusive breastfeeding for 6 months!!!

Capsid

keeps the virus from drying up and binding easier to the next host cell

Gram Positive

• No outer membrane.

• Easier for antibiotics to penetrate and break the cell wall

Staphylococcus

Spherical bacteria that grow in grape-like clusters.”

Sodium-Potassium Pump (Na+/K+)

• Pumps 3 sodium ions (Na⁺) OUT of the cell

• Pumps 2 potassium ions (K⁺) INTO the cell

-3 Sodium, +2 potassium

S=I—>O P=O—>I

Right Hypochondriac Region

Gallbladder