Classical and Operant Conditioning: Key Concepts and Theories

Acquisition

the process in classical conditioning in which a conditioned response is strengthened through repeated pairings of the conditioned stimulus with the unconditioned stimulus.

Extinction

the weakening or elimination of a conditioned response when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus.

Spontaneous Recovery

the reappearance of a previously extinguished conditioned response after a rest period.

Disinhibition

the sudden recovery of a conditioned response during extinction when a novel stimulus is introduced.

Stimulus Generalization

the tendency for a conditioned response to occur in the presence of stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus.

Stimulus Discrimination

the ability to distinguish between different stimuli and only respond to the conditioned stimulus.

Discrimination Training

the procedure of reinforcing responses in the presence of one stimulus (CS+) and not reinforcing in the presence of another (CS−) to teach discrimination.

Experimental Neurosis

a disorder-like behavior resulting from difficult or stressful discrimination training.

Higher-Order Conditioning

a neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus by being paired with an already established conditioned stimulus rather than an unconditioned stimulus.

Sensory Preconditioning

two neutral stimuli are associated with each other before conditioning, so that after one becomes a conditioned stimulus, the other also elicits the conditioned response.

Overshadowing

when a more noticeable stimulus within a compound stimulus is more easily conditioned than a less noticeable stimulus.

Blocking

when a previously conditioned stimulus prevents a new stimulus from becoming conditioned because the US is no longer surprising.

Latent Inhibition

familiar stimuli are harder to condition because prior exposure without the US makes them less likely to form an association.

Temporal Conditioning

the conditioned response occurs based on the passage of time rather than an external stimulus.

Occasion Setting

a stimulus signals when a conditioned stimulus will be followed by the unconditioned stimulus, acting like a "setting" cue.

External Inhibition

the decrease in a conditioned response when a novel external stimulus is presented along with the conditioned stimulus.

US Revaluation

post-conditioning change in the intensity of the unconditioned stimulus results in a change in the strength of the conditioned response.

Pseudoconditioning

a response to a neutral stimulus that appears to be a conditioned response but actually results from sensitization rather than true conditioning.

S-S Learning

the theory that the conditioned stimulus becomes associated with a mental representation of the unconditioned stimulus.

S-R Learning

the theory that the conditioned stimulus becomes directly associated with the response itself.

Stimulus-Substitution Theory

the conditioned stimulus acts as a substitute for the unconditioned stimulus and directly elicits the same response.

Preparatory-Response Theory

the conditioned response prepares the organism for the presentation of the unconditioned stimulus.

Compensatory-Response Model

the conditioned response counteracts or opposes the unconditioned stimulus, often explaining drug tolerance and withdrawal.

Rescorla-Wagner Theory

the amount of learning is determined by the surprisingness of the unconditioned stimulus, with a set maximum level of conditioning that can be achieved.

Understanding Phobias

classical conditioning can explain how phobias develop through association of a neutral stimulus with a fearful or traumatic event.

Treating Phobias

involves classical conditioning-based therapies such as systematic desensitization, counterconditioning, and flooding to eliminate fear responses.

Aversion Therapy

a treatment that reduces problem behaviors by pairing them with an unpleasant or aversive stimulus.

Medical Applications of Classical Conditioning

classical conditioning is used in health contexts such as immune system conditioning, placebo effects, and conditioned physiological responses

Thorndike's Law of Effect

behaviors that are followed by satisfying consequences are strengthened, while behaviors followed by unpleasant consequences are weakened.

Skinner's Selection by Consequences

behavior evolves and is maintained through reinforcement or punishment, similar to natural selection.

Operant Behavior

behavior that is influenced by its consequences.

Operant Consequences

events that follow a behavior and determine whether the behavior will be strengthened or weakened.

Reinforcers

consequences that increase the likelihood of a behavior occurring again.

Punishers

consequences that decrease the likelihood of a behavior occurring again.

Discriminative Stimulus (SD)

a cue or signal that indicates that a particular behavior will be followed by a certain consequence.

Positive Reinforcement

the presentation of a pleasant or rewarding stimulus following a behavior to increase that behavior.

Negative Reinforcement

the removal of an unpleasant stimulus following a behavior to increase that behavior.

Positive Punishment

the presentation of an unpleasant stimulus following a behavior to decrease that behavior.

Negative Punishment

the removal of a pleasant stimulus following a behavior to decrease that behavior.

Immediate Reinforcement

reinforcement delivered directly after the behavior, which produces stronger learning.

Delayed Reinforcement

reinforcement delivered some time after the behavior, generally less effective than immediate reinforcement.

Primary Reinforcers

reinforcers that are naturally satisfying or biologically based, such as food or water.

Secondary Reinforcers

reinforcers that acquire value through experience and association, such as money or praise.

Intrinsic Reinforcement

reinforcement that comes from the behavior itself being enjoyable or satisfying.

Extrinsic Reinforcement

reinforcement that comes from an external reward or consequence.

Natural Reinforcers

reinforcers that occur naturally as a direct result of behavior.

Contrived Reinforcers

reinforcers that are intentionally arranged to shape behavior, often artificial.

Shaping

the gradual process of reinforcing successive approximations of a desired behavior until the target behavior is achieved.