Adolescent Development (PSYCH 327) FINAL -- Fall 2025

Ch.9-13

autonomy

freedom from the constraint s of childhood dependence, 3 domains: emotional (less reliance), behavioural (make decisions), cogntive (advance thinking and self judgement)

• actions initiated and regulated by the adolescent itself, freedom to make choices, pursue goals, et.

autonomy as independence

freedom from constraints of childhood dependence— involves self-sufficiency and behavioural independence than internal motivation, being able to do things on ur own, without help

• focus on the behaviour

• ex. going out without needing a ride, making ur own meals, managing ur own schedule

  • gain more independence as they get older

• seperation-individuation

• extenral—→ about freedom form others control

problems with autonmy as individuation

lead to identity confusion, anxiety and excessive depdnece

seperation-individuation

the process during adolesence where teens establish indpendence and devleop a personal identity while still maintaining relationships with caregivers

• how children gradually become emotionally seperate form their parents

autonomy as voltion

actions that are based on ur own actions, values, and interests -feel free to make choices based on own values and interests (do things because they truly want to)

• focus on the motivation — feel like ur actions are based on own choices

• ex. choosing to study because uu care about ur future- not because someone forces u

• self determination theory

• internal —→ about freedom t o make perosnally menaingful choices

self determination theory

together with needs fro relatedness and competence, the need for autonomy is a third basic psychological need that, when fulfilled, results in thriving and pscyhosocial adjustment

• competence, autonomy, relatedness

• when needs are met motivation becomes intrinsic

heternonomy

ipposite of autonomy as volition —→ feelings of pressure or inner conflict

volition

freedom on the inside

• act because u want to, based on personal values and motivation

• intirnsic motivation— internal sense of choice

• u can have volition without independence (ex. parents drive u to practice but u truly want to go)

independence

freedom on the outside

• , act on ur own, physically or behaviourally

• , extrinsic motivation— external ability to act alone

• , ex. u walk to school alone, but only because u feel pressured—→ high independence, low volition

jingle fallacy

msitke in psychology where people assume 2 things are the same cause they care the same name

• 2 measure labeled with the same term, they must meaure the same thing even if they actually dont

puberty and autonomy

it drives te adolescent away from exclusive emotional dependence on the family

• major biological and social changes that directly influence the development of autonomy during adolescence

• it increased their drive for independence and changes how others treat them, which accelerates development of autonomy in emotional, cognitive, and behavioral domains

WORLD TREATS THEM LIKE AUTONOMOUS INDIVIDUALS SO THEY ACT LIKE IT

cognitive change and autonomy

it enables teens to think independently, evaluate consequences, question authority logically and form personal values and goals

• develop a system of values based on ones own sense of right and wrong

social roles and autonomy

as adolescents grow they move into new positions that demand increasing degrees of responsibility and self- reliance

• new social roles that shift responsibilities, expectations and relationships—→ critical for developing behaviural, emotional and value based autonomy

emotional autonomy

the establishment of more adult-like and less childish close relationships with family members and peers

• able to manage and rely on ones own emotions - emotionally self reliant

how does emotional autonomy change the reationship between children and parents in adolesence

• no longer rush to parents when upset, worried or needing help

• dont see paretns as all knowing and all-powerful

• emotional energy of aodlescents is invested in other reltionships

detachment theory

puberty leads to family conflict, resulting in emotional separation (detachment)

• reduciton in emotional dependence on parents and establishment of independence in thoughts, feelings, and behaviours

individuation

a gradual process where adolescents take responsibility for themselves, recognizing paarents as individuals beyond parental roles

• form distinct sense of self while still maintaing emotional connections

  • differentiate ones own thoughts, feelings, and vlues form those of caregivers

indicators of emotional autonomy

• seeing parents flaws

• depend on self rather than on parents

• recognize things about self that parents are unaware of

• increasing size of social networks

• psoseess different beliefs form parents

• draw distincitons between aspects of life that arent subjected to arents authority

de-idealization

the process during adolesence in which teens begin to perceive their paretns more realistically, recognizing both strenths nf limitations— more balanced understanding (see parents as real people)

• involves removing parents form their pedestals

emotional autonomy —→ auhoritatie parenting

balances independence with emotional closeness, fostering healhty autonomy

Emotional autonomy —→ auhtoritatian parenting

• may lead to dependence or rebellion in adolescents

emotional autonomy —→ permissive/indifferent parenting

• can result in spychological depence on peers

psychological control

parenting that attempts to control the adolscents’ emotions and opinions, focus on regulation behaviour

• may lead to individuating, depresison, anxiety, aggression, feeligs of incompetencce, and dependence

behavioural autonomy =

freedom to act indpendently

psychological control =

pressure that limits ur personal or emotional freedom

behavioural autonomy

the capacity to make independent decisions and to follow through with them

• about actions, choices and self regullation

• crucial for weighing opinions and advice of others , contemplate long term consequences, consider both risks and consequences, and others point of view

imporvemnts in self-regulation

due to 2 sperate but related developments:

• decline in how much decisions are influenced by potential immediate rewards and an increased ability to control impulses

behavioural autonomy - susceptibility to influence

influence of parents and peers—→ differnt people or advice in different situations, peers for short term social matters, paretns for long term questions

response to peer pressure

• most happens in absence of adults

• conformity to peers is greater during first half of adolescence — susceptibility depends on who the peers are

• adolescents have a heightened orientation toward other people

individual differences in susceptiility to peer influence

• girls are less sucpetible than boys

• black seen as least suscpetible and asian american as most susceptible among those with ethnic backgrounds

• the fewer firends an adolescent has, the more susceptible they are to firnds influences

cognitive autonomy

the establishment of an independent oset of values, opinions and beliefs

• make decisions baased on theri own reasoning rather than folowing others —→ think for urself form beliefs

moral development

adolescents learn to distinguish right form wrong, develop a sense of justuce, and internaize vluaes that guide behaviour

• prosocial reasoning bcoems more sophisticated during adolesence

prosocial reasoning

the way people think about and justify helping others, cooperating, or acitng in ways that benefit otehrs often at perosnal cost—→ can range form self interst to concern for others welfare

• adolescents increasingly move from self focused reasoning to principle reasoning

civic engagement

involvement in political and community affairs as reflected in knowledge about politics and current affairs, participation in conventional and alternative political activities, and engaging in community service

• adolescents take active roles in helping their communities and shaping society and grows as their autonomy; identity and reasoning develop

service learning

the process of learning through involvement in community service

• apprach to education where students participate in menaingful community sevice and connect directly to what theyr learning in school

Engaging in community service leads to benefits:

• short term gains in mental health and social responsibility

• increases in the importance individuals place on helping others

• increased commitment to tolerance, equal opportunity, and cultural diversity

initmacy

emotional sense of attachment to someone with whom one shares personal knowledge and a concern for each others well-being

• can happen with friends, parents,etc.

• dependency and ttrust on others classified as intimacy

• able to have realtionships that permit closeness, bonding, meaning, and supprort

changes in social roles and the development of intimacy

Social role changes in adolescence, such as increased autonomy, mixed sex interactions and greater peer involvement– create opportunities for emotional haring, trust, and romantic experiences, which promote more mature intimacy

• behavioural indepndece provides more opportunity for intimate discussion

• become confidants, sources of support for parents and other adults

sullivans theory of interpersonal development

the idea that we develop a sense of self thorugh relationships, different interpersonal needs emrge at different ages, and how well these needs are met effects later adjustment and mental helath

• adolescents learn trust, empathy, and communication through friendships

• need for intimacy precedes development of romantic or sexual relationships

intimacy develops step by step and prepares the teen for romance (developmental progression in intimacy)

bowlbys atttachment theory

emotional bond developed with caregivers in early life creates an internal working model (a mental blueprint for how rlaitonships work)

• guides socil and emotional funcitoning throughout life, including intimacy in adolesence

attachment

the strong affectional bond that develops between an infant and a caregiver

• influences firendship, peer trust, and romantic relationships, it shapes social competence and emotional regulation

secure attachment

a healthy attachment between an infant and caregiver, characterized by trust

• trusting and comfortable with closeness

  • im loveable and others are reliable

• mainly consistent, responsive and warm —-authoritative parenting

Anxious-avoidant attachment

An insecure attachment between an infant and a caregiver, characterized by indifference on the part of the infant toward the caregiver

• Emotionally distant, avoids intimacy

• Others cant be trusted

rejecting or emotionally distant

• parents that are distant and closed off— reject the child and withdraw to protect themselves

Anxious-resistant attachment

An insecure attachment between an infant and a caregiver, characterized by distress at separation and anger at reunion

• Clingy, dependent, seeks reassurance

  • I worry others wont stay

Disorganized attachment

A relationship between an infant and a caregiver characterized by the absence of normal attachment behavior

• Unpredictable behaviours, fear of lcoseness

• Confusion about trust and self worth

interpersonal working model

The implicit model of interpersonal relationships that an individual employs throughout life, believed to be shaped by early attachment experiences

• unconsious expectation and beliefa a person develops abput themselves and others in relationships

• mental template for future relationships— formed in childhood but can evovle through new relationship experiences

rejection sensitivity

heightened vulnerability to being rejected by others

• tendency to expect rejection, react very strongly to any signs of rejection, interpret neutral or unclear behaviour as rejection

• worry about being liked, assume others are upset with them even when theyre not —→ pull away or become defensive to protect themselves

Adult attachment interview

A structured interview used to assess an individual’s past attachment history and “internal working model” of relationships.

• responses categorized as secure, dsimisisng or preoccupied

• degree of security in an adolesccen’s attachment style interacts with other experiences to shape mental health and behavior

Anxious

Inconsistent or unpredictable

• Child cannot predict how parents react and when will they provide comfort

Disorganized

frightening, abusive, or severely inconsistent

• Very unpredictable, neglectful

temperament

a persons biologically based style of:

• reacting emotionally, regulating attention and behavior, approaching or avoiding new situations

• predicts how teens respond to stress, how they navigate autonomy, intimacy, and identity, and their vulnerability or resilience during adolescence

difference between how children and adolescents define friendships

both metion sharing, helping, and common activities

• adolesents additionally mention self-disclosure, common interests, similiar attitudes and values, and loyalty

benign envy

those can inspire personal growth and self improvement m

malicious envy

lead to destructive behaviours and emotional pain

• wish other people to lose their advantage

sex differences in intimacy

girls talk more frequently about intimate conversations, express greater concern, and greater anxiety over rejection

• boys conflicts are breifer, and usually over issues of power and control- more likely to escalate into physical aggression, and usuaully resolved without explicit effort

• girls are better at negotiating conflict, but their conflicts last longer

origins of sex differences in intimacy

Differences come from gendered socialization (boys taught to be less emotionally vulnerable), peer norms (fear of teasing or rejection), puberty and hormones (drive desires for romanitc intimacy

• differences shaped by social expectations not by inability

Reaffiliation motive

The normal and adaptive motivation that most of us have, which prompts us to reconnect with others when we feel lonely

• desire to reconnect after feeling rejected, excluded, or lonely —> teens more sensitive to social rejection hence do this more often

Social support

The extent to which an individual receives emotional or instrumental assistance from their social network

• strong ties— valuable but requires effort, provide emotional support

• weak ties — open and expansive networks are good for sharing information, provide instrumental support

origins of the sex cleavage

tendency for adolescents to form friendships mainly with peers of the same sex

• adolescents prefer activities nad socila behaviours comon with same-sex peers— not due to dislike of other sex

• shift from same sex friendships to othersex friendships can feel awkward and uncertain

funciton of other-sex friendships

• act as pracice for future romantic relationships— provide insight into what other sex is like socially and emotionally

• boys often fain more emotional support and scoial skills from friendships with girls—→ girls font always benefit as much from friendships with boys during early adolesence

attachment theory

romantic relationships reflect a teens attachment stles (people differ in relationship quality)

ecological perpesctive

romance is shaped by the environmrnt and social systems areound the adolescents (romance happens within a broader soccial context)

reasons for dating

Adolescents date for fum and status early on, but as they mature, dating becomes more about intimacy, support, and forming meaningful romantic bonds→ ultimately preparing them for adult relationships

Prior to middle or late adolescence, dating may be less important for the development of intimacy than it is for other purposes:

• establishinf emoitonal and behavioural autonomy from parents

• furtherinf the development of gender identity

• establishing and maintaining status and popularity in the peer groups

• influencing how they will be seen by otehrs

phases of romance

1. Roughly between ages 11 and 13, the first discovery of interest in socializing with potential romantic and sexual partners.

2. From about ages 14 to 16, shift toward more meaningful dyadic relationships.

3. Around age 17 or 18, concerns about commitment at the forefront and consideration of the long-term survival and growth of romantic attachments

Sexuality

broad set feelings, thoughts, behvaiours, and identify experiences related to being a sexual person

• culture decides what counts as sexual → certain behaviours, body parts, and relationships

• learned expectations are called sexual scripts

puberty and adolescent sexuality

• increased sex drive

• possibility of preganancy

• developmepent of secondary sex traits

cognitive change and adolescent sexuality

• influenced by merging cogitive capabilities (introspection and reflection about sexual behaviour

• subject on painful conjecture, hypothetical thinking, and decision making

social roles and adolescent sexuality

• deistes for the sort of serious emotional relationships that begins to take on features of adult romance

  • sexuality becomes part of identity and reputation - peer norms influence timing and acceptibility of sexual activity

• desire to enghnace their status with peers

autoerotic behaviour

• sexual behvaiour that that is experienced alone, such as masterbation or sexual fantasizing (sexual behaviour done alone- normal first step n adolesccent sexual devolopment

prevalence of sexual intercourse

males tend to overstate their level of activity; females tend to understate it

religious investments =

predicts later initiation or abstinence

links between early sexual activity and parenting

• authroitative paretnitnf is associated with adolescents who are less likely to beocme sexuallya ctive at an early age

• also linked to adolescnts who are less likely to engage in risky sexual behaviour

• communication about sex stops adolescents from enagging in risy sexual behaviours but deos little to prevent them from being sexually activ ein genral

reasons why adolescents in single parent homes ar emore likley to be sexually active at earlier ages

• More permissive homes

• dating for single parent mothers may unknowngly be role models of sexual activity to their adolescents

• the same gene that makes men more likely ot leave their family makes adolescent girls more likely to go through puberty early and ebcome sexually active at an earalier age

Adolecents are mor elikely to be sexually active under certian socil circumstances:

• when their peers are sexually active or they believe their friends are

• have older siblings who model more sexually advanced behavior

• sexually active peers establish normative standard that having sex is acceptable

• peers influence sexual behaviors directly, either though communication among friends or between sex partners

sexual socialization

the process through which adolescents are exposed to and educated about sexuality

• boys and girls develop different meanings, motivations, and emotional expectations around sex because theyre socialized differently

sexual socialization -→ boys

• first experience orgasm through masturbation

• keep matters of sex and intimacy separate (easy access to porn)

• mention sexual arousal (rather than emotional factors) as a reason for having sex

• likely to experience approval from peers they confided in

• sex as recreation/ independence

sexual socialization → girls

• more likely toe experience sex for the first time with another person

• integrate sexual activity into an existing capacity for intimacy and emotional involvement

• more likely to encounter disapproval or mixed feelings from others in whom she confides in

• sex as intimacy/connection

sexual orientation

a persons sexual and emotional attractin to another person and the behavior and or social affiiation that may result from this attraction

• different from gender identity

atecedents of homosexuality

no single factor causes homosexuality → psychological and medical experts agree sexual orientation is not a choice and cannot be changed through social pressure or parenting

• orientation emerges natuarally

• not relaibly predicted by early experimentation

• family influences do not determine orientation

improving contraceptive behaviour

• make contraceptive more accessible

• provide sex education about fundamntals of contraceptive use before adolescents become sexually active

• parents can be ore open and respponsive in the ways they communicate witht heir teenagers about sex

• encourage adolescets to consider potential consequences of an unplanned pregancnay or an STI

teenage pregnancy→ abortion

pregant teenage women who abort their preganncy are significantly better off psychologically, socially, and economically than women who give birth to their child

• also more likely to complete high school and go to college

judicial bypass

A regulation in many states that allows adolescents who want to abort a pregnancy but who are unwilling or unable to involve their parents in the decision to obtain permission from a judge to seek an abortion.

• exists as a safeguard → a confidential alternative to make decisions about their reproducive health

teenage pregnancy→ adolescent parenthood

more likely to have behavioural, psychological, and scholastic problems than their peers born to adult parents

• adolescent mothers may perceive theri babies as being more difficult and have problmes interacting with them

consequences for teen mothers

• problems possibly greater for mothers than childrne

• disruptions in school and careers

• more likely to remain poor

• still considerable diversity in adult life paths

• long term advantage to remaining in school

comprehencice sexual education (CSE)

a sex education approach that provides medically accurate, age appropriate, and holistic information about: human development and anatomy, relationships, etc.

• promotes safe and responsible decision making, healthy relationships, respect and inclusion for diverse identities

• deosn’t encourage more teens to have sex, it instead changes what teens know or how they behave

achievement as an addolescent issue

• adolescents are peparing for adult work roles

• indiviudal differences related to future success can be seen

• educational decisions are numerous

• consequences of decions are more serious than they were during childhood

not just about grades but broader personal development, decision making, and prepertion for adulthood

puberty is associated with achievement

• there is a drop in achievement motivation during the transition to secondary school

• puberty chnages what is important to adolescnets leading to concerns about academic success and popularity

• puberty is assicated with increased risky beahviour

  • can indirectly afect achievement by influencing attention, effort, and engagement in school activities

cognitive development and achievement

• certain higher order cognitive skills mature during adolesence

• adolescents develop the ability to see long-term consequences of educaitonal and occupational choices

• adolescents begin to think hypothetically, which raises new achievement concerns— explore possibilities and weigh alt choices

• Cognitive changes during adolescence also allows adolescents to think through hypothetical concerns logically and systematically.

social transiitions and achievement

these transitions shape adolecents identity, motivation and sense of self-efficacy, navigatinf these can foster independe, confidence and goal setting abilities

• adolescets are now making a number of decisions about their education

• adolesence is a time when individuals are enow legally allowed to work

noncogntive factors

influences on achievement that are not directly relted to intellectual ability, includes traits that affect motivation, effort, and persistence in academic and occupational tasks

mastery motivation

an intrinsic motivation to succeed based on the pleasure one will experience form mastery of knoledge or task

• ex. do better in school as they enjoy the process of learning itslef

performance motivation

an extrinsic motivation to succeed based on the rewards one will receive form successful performance and/or the punishments they would receive for poor performance

• can lead to achievement but may also create anxiety or fear of failure

students who have difficulty with either achievement motivation (performance or mastery) =

are more likely to underachieve

stereotype threat

the harmful effect that exposure to stereotypes abouth ethnic or sex differnces in ability has on student performance

self efficacy

the sense that an individual has some contorl over their motivations, behaviours, and environmetn

achievement attributions

the beliefs an individual holds about the causes of their successes and failures

• individuals attirbute their performance to a comnination of ability (internal), effort (internal), task difficulty (externak), and luck (external)

noncognitive factors → cognitive domain

executive functions, critical thinking, perspective taking

noncognitive factors → emotional domain

emotional knowledge and expression, behavioral and emotional regulation, coping