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Periodization
The division of history into distinct periods based on specific dates and names.
Iron Age II
The period from 1000–586 BCE characterized by the dominance of iron tools and weapons.
Persian Period
The period from 539–332 BCE when the Persian Empire ruled over the region.
Hellenistic Period
The period from 332–63 BCE marked by the influence of Greek culture and the conquests of Alexander the Great.
Early Roman (Herodian) Period
The period from 63 BCE–70 CE when the Roman Empire controlled the region, including the reign of Herod the Great.
Late Roman Period
The period from 70–324 CE characterized by the continued Roman rule and influence.
Byzantine Period
The period from 324–638 CE when the Eastern Roman Empire, known as the Byzantine Empire, was established.
Early Arab/Islamic Period
The period from 638–1099 CE marked by the rise of Arab and Islamic rule in the region.
Crusader Period
The period from 1099–1291 CE when European Christian Crusaders established and ruled over the region.
Gospel of Matthew
A book in the New Testament of the Bible attributed to an unknown author traditionally identified as Matthew, focusing on the kingship of Jesus and his fulfillment of Jewish law.
Gospel of Mark
A book in the New Testament of the Bible attributed to an unknown author traditionally identified as Mark, emphasizing the suffering of Jesus and the negative view of his disciples.
Gospel of Luke
A book in the New Testament of the Bible attributed to an unknown author traditionally identified as Luke, highlighting the diptychs, Jesus as the savior of the world, and his innocence.
Gospel of John
A book in the New Testament of the Bible attributed to an unknown author traditionally identified as John, emphasizing the identity of Jesus as equal to God.
1 Timothy
A letter in the New Testament of the Bible written in the name of Paul, containing instructions regarding women learning in silence and salvation through childbearing.
Letter to the Magnesians
A letter written by Ignatius of Antioch in the early 2nd century CE, emphasizing the hierarchical structure of the church and unity through leadership.
Pliny’s Letter to Trajan
A letter written by Pliny the Younger in 112 CE to Emperor Trajan, seeking guidance on how to deal with Christians and their potential crimes.
Trajan’s Letter to Pliny
A letter written by Emperor Trajan in response to Pliny's letter, commending his actions and instructing that anonymous accusations against Christians should not be accepted.
Antitheses
A concept introduced by Marcion in the mid-2nd century CE, highlighting the differences between Judaism and Christianity and the contrasting teachings of the Creator God and the better God.
Dialogue with Trypho
A work by Justin Martyr in 155 CE, promoting the idea of supersessionism and the replacement of Jewish law by Christianity.
Against Heresies
A work by Irenaeus of Lyons in 180 CE, criticizing the Ediomites for their adherence to Jewish law and rejecting the authority of Paul.
Acts of Paul and Thecla
A text from the late 2nd century CE, emphasizing chastity through virginity and the rejection of patriarchal marriage.
Martyrdom of Perpetua and Felicitas
A text from after 202 CE, recounting the story of Perpetua's refusal to renounce her Christian faith and her eventual martyrdom.
Against Praxeas
A work by Tertullian in the early 3rd century CE, promoting the concept of the Trinity and criticizing modalism.
On First Principles
A work by Origen in ca. 230 CE, discussing the preexistence of souls and the divinity of Christ.
The Letter of Peter to James
A forged letter written in the 3rd century CE by Jewish Christians, concerned with preserving truth and establishing rules for passing on teachings and books.
Homilies of Clement
A work written in the 3rd century CE attributed to Clement, emphasizing the importance of both Moses and Jesus in Christianity.
Letter of Arius to Alexander
A letter written by Arius in ca. 320 CE, asserting the preexistence of God the Father and the begetting of Jesus before time.
Circular Letter of Alexander of Alexandria
A letter written by Alexander, Bishop of Alexandria, in ca. 324 CE, affirming the unbegotten nature of the Father and the creation of all other beings.
Nicene Creed
A text from 325 CE produced by the Council of Nicaea, affirming the belief in one God,
Gethsemane
Jesus is deeply grieved and his disciples fall asleep multiple times, deserting him when the soldiers come.
Gethsemane (Luke)
Jesus heals the high priest's ear and is more concerned about the disciples than himself.
Gethsemane (John)
Jesus is arrested by Judas and reads the minds of those who arrest him.
Trial/Crucifixion (Luke)
Jesus is silent during Herod's questioning and Pilate and Herod become friends.
Trial/Crucifixion (Luke)
Jesus asks the Father to forgive his crucifiers and is mocked by Jewish leaders and Roman soldiers.
Trial/Crucifixion (Mark)
Centurion sarcastically declares Jesus as God's Son.
Resurrection (Mark)
Women see the empty tomb and run away trembling and bewildered.
Resurrection (Luke)
Jesus appears to the disciples, expounds upon the scriptures, and ascends.
Resurrection (John)
Mary informs the disciples of the empty tomb and the unnamed beloved disciple believes because of the sight of the clothes in the tomb.
Resurrection (John)
Jesus appears to Mary and she believes not because of sight, but hearing his voice.
Resurrection (John)
Doubting Thomas requires seeing in order to believe.
Mark's Gospel Endings
Shortest ending - women are too afraid to tell others about the resurrection.
Mark's Gospel Endings
Short ending - women report briefly to Peter and others, Jesus sends them to preach the gospel.
Mark's Gospel Endings
Long ending - extra material where Jesus appears to Mary, disciples don't believe her, he rebukes them and tells them to preach the gospel.
Mark's Gospel Endings
Longest ending - includes an insertion about Satan's power and the purpose of Christ's death.
Jewish Christianity
Believers in Jesus committed to Jewish institutions and commandments.
James
Brother of Jesus, first bishop of Jerusalem, adhered to Jewish law and was known as "James the Just."
Paul
Opposed strict observance of Jewish Christianity, believed Gentiles should not be required to live by Jewish law.
Early Jewish Christian Scripture
Gospel of Matthew, Epistle of James, Revelation.
Ignatius of Antioch
Early Christian martyr and bishop of Antioch, wrote 7 letters emphasizing unity, authority of bishops, and rejection of heretical beliefs.
Ignatius' Letter to the Magnesians
Emphasizes unity, respect for ecclesiastical authority, doctrinal purity, endurance of hardships, and fostering a loving and respectful Christian community.
Heresies
Wrong beliefs or choices against Christian beliefs.
Docetism
Belief that Jesus only seemed to be human, but was actually only God.
Apostolikon
Collection of Paul's letters, revised to omit positive affirmations of Jewish elements.
Evangelikon
Revised Gospel of Luke, omitting certain sections.
Supersessionism
Belief that Christianity supersedes or replaces Judaism.
Apologist
Someone who defends Christianity, such as Justin Martyr.
Irenaeus of Lyons
Critic of Jewish Christianity and enemy of Marcion.
Marcion
Wealthy ship-owner from Asia Minor who rejected the God of the Old Testament and believed in a higher, merciful God of the New Testament.
Marcion's Views on God
Believed in two Gods - the God of Israel (lower, inferior, and just) and the God of Jesus (higher, merciful, and loving).
Marcion's Christology
Marcion believed that Jesus Christ was the emissary of the higher God, the Messiah for everyone, and that he came to teach people how to return to God. He denied the full humanity of Jesus and believed that Jesus did not have a real body, but only seemed to have one.
Marcion's rejection of Jewish Scriptures
Marcion rejected the Jewish Scriptures (the Old Testament) as irrelevant to Christianity, considering them the product of the lower creator God and incompatible with the teachings of Jesus. He only accepted Paul's epistles and the gospel of Luke, which he edited to align with his theological views.
Marcion's view of the material world
Marcion viewed the material world as a creation of the inferior God and believed it to be a wicked place that people needed to escape. This led to ascetic practices such as sexual abstinence, prohibiting marriage, and dietary restrictions.
Marcion's rejection of Judaism
Marcion refused to accept Judaism and its scriptures, considering Christianity to be a completely new and distinct revelation.
Marcion's rejection of the Jewish Law
Marcion rejected the Jewish Law as part of the revelation from the creator God. He argued that Christians should not follow the Law and emphasized faith in the gospel of Jesus Christ as the means of salvation.
Marcion's selective acceptance of apostolic authority
Marcion selectively accepted only certain Pauline Epistles and a version of the Gospel of Luke, editing them to align with his theological views.
Justin Martyr's biography
Justin Martyr was born and raised in Samaria, trained in philosophy, and converted to Christianity as an adult. He moved to Rome and set up a school of instruction. He was an early Christian apologist and the earliest example of a supersessionist, someone who believed that Christianity replaces or supersedes Judaism. He was eventually killed for his Christian beliefs.
Justin Martyr's understanding of the relationship between God and Christ
Justin Martyr believed in monotheism but was willing to acknowledge the existence of two persons, God and Jesus. He believed that Jesus was begotten by an act of the Father's will and that there were multiple persons together in the divine nature.
Justin Martyr's view of the Jewish Law
Justin Martyr saw circumcision as a metaphor for the circumcision of the heart and believed that Jews were circumcised because they needed a mark to be set apart for their role in murdering Christ. He emphasized that females could not be circumcised and that circumcision was a sign, not an act of justification for salvation. He also believed in a perpetual Sabbath where Christians remember Jesus every day, with the Eucharist sacrament replacing animal sacrifice.
Roman persecution of early Christians
The Roman Empire had an imperial cult that divinized and worshiped past and current emperors, promoting social order and loyalty. Jews were informally exempted from the imperial cult due to their worship of the God of Israel. The Romans maintained religious diversity through the mos maiorum, the custom of the ancestors. Christians who refused to sacrifice to pagan gods were considered lapsed and faced persecution. Confessors were those who confessed faith in Christianity and endured persecution and imprisonment. The Great Persecution under Emperor Diocletian was the last and most severe persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire. The Edict of Milan, signed by Constantine, permanently legalized Christianity within the empire.
Modalists/Modalism
The belief that the terms "Father," "Son," and "Holy Spirit" are descriptive of the different roles that God plays in human salvation, but do not correspond to the ultimate nature of the Godhead. Father, Son, and Holy Spirit are seen as different modes of the same being.
Trinity
The belief that Jesus, the Father, and the Holy Spirit are one being, similar to the concept of Neapolitan ice cream where different flavors are combined into one.
Origen
A Christian teacher and writer who established himself as a prominent figure in the Christian community. Known for his intellectual rigor and philosophical approach to theology. His works include biblical commentaries, theological treatises, and writings on Christian doctrine.
Psychodrama
Origen's concept of the state of God, where God is "one" and has always existed, unbegotten and never "made." He believes that before this life, beings (humans, angels, demons, etc.) existed as "minds" dedicated to contemplating the divine realm and worshiping God.
Humanity's Relationship to God
According to Origen, before the fall, beings existed as "minds" dedicated to contemplating God. However, pre-existent minds diverted attention away from God and "fell away" at varying degrees. Angels fell only a short distance, humans fell more significantly than angels, and devils fell the most.
Christ's Similarity to Humanity
Origen believes that Christ was also a pre-existent mind like humans but never "fell" or looked away from God. He became unified with God through choice and descended to earth to show other "minds" the correct way back to God.
Jesus' Equality with God
Origen sees Christ as a mind like humans but unified with God through love and constant exercise of free will. He uses the analogy of iron in the fire, where iron becomes indistinguishable from the fire as it heats up. Through free will and devotion to God, Christ's nature was changed to match that of God's.
The End of All Things
Origen believes that God will continue to teach humanity forever until they choose to follow Him. He believes in universalism, that through God's love and patience, all will eventually be saved. He envisions a cosmic "restoration" where everything returns to its original state before the fall.
Constantine
Roman emperor who made Christianity fully legal in the Roman Empire and reunified the empire. He was attracted to Christianity due to its compatibility with his beliefs in the sun-god and had a vision of the Chi-Rho symbol before the Battle of Milvian Bridge.
Theodosius I
Roman emperor who built massive triple walls of Constantinople and made Christianity the official religion of the Roman Empire. The empire divided at his death.
Ecumenical Councils
Decision-making meetings held by the leaders of the Christian church during the Byzantine period to define church procedures and settle important doctrinal issues. Intended to establish unity of belief in the church and produced doctrinal statements called "creeds." Seven ecumenical councils were held in antiquity.
Arius of Alexandria
A priest in Alexandria who believed that God has existed forever, but Christ is begotten and everything else is created or made. He had a high Christology and viewed Jesus as subordinate to the Father.
Alexander of Alexandria
The bishop of the city who believed that Christ did not come from nothing and that Jesus is begotten while everything else is created or made. He disagreed with Arius's view and believed that Christ is not subordinate to the Father.
Council of Nicaea
A council where the Nicene Creed was established with near unanimous agreement. Arius and two Libyan bishops who refused to sign the creed were exiled. The council addressed the issue of Arianism and further Christological controversies.
