UNIT 2 - TOPIC 4

Who and when was the two-factor theory of emotions developed?

Schachter and Singer in 1962

What is the two-factor theory emotions?

proposes that emotion results from two components: physiological arousal and the cognitive label we give to that arousal. For example, if a person’s heart is racing, they may interpret it as excitement when on a rollercoaster or as fear if being chased. The same physical response can lead to different emotions depending on how it is labelled. 

Step-by-step example of the two-factor theory occurring

1. Something happens (e.g. you see a big dog running toward you). 2. Your body reacts — your heart beats faster, your hands shake. 👉 (This is called physiological arousal.) 3. You think about the situation — “That dog looks scary and might bite me!” 👉 (This is called cognitive labelling.) 4. You feel an emotion — fear.

Who and when was the appraisal theory of emotion developed?

Lazarus in the 1960s

Appraisal theory of emotion

argues that cognitive appraisal comes first, before physiological arousal. According to this theory, people evaluate (appraise) a situation as threatening or non-threatening, and this appraisal determines the emotional response. For example, if someone sees a large dog, they may first assess whether it is dangerous, and only then experience fear along with physiological changes.

Key difference between two-factor and appraisal theory

The two-factor theory says that emotion happens when your body reacts first, like your heart racing, and then your mind labels what’s happening based on the situation. The emotion comes from both the physical reaction and the mental label. You need both for the emotion to happen.

The appraisal theory says that emotion starts with your thoughts about the situation. You first judge whether it’s a threat, challenge, or not important. The emotion comes from how you think about it, and the body may react after — but it’s not always needed.

Limbic system

A group of structures in the brain involved in the experience and expression of emotions; includes the amygdala, hippocampus, thalamus, hypothalamus, cingulate gyrus and the basal ganglia

Limbic system diagram

Function of thalamus

It acts as a relay system (means it receives information from one place, processes or passes it along, and then sends it to the next place). In emotion, it sends sensory information to the right parts of the brain, including those that deal with emotions (it helps the brain notice emotional information quickly).

Function of hypothalamus

It controls body functions like hunger, sleep, and temperature. In emotions, it activates the body’s response to emotions by controlling the autonomic nervous system (it helps trigger physical changes when we feel emotions - e.g. faster heartbeat).

Function of amygdala

It processes emotional reactions, especially fear and anger. In emotion, it detects threats or danger and helps the body react quickly (its like an emotional alarm system).

Function of hippocampus

It helps form and store memories. In emotion, it connected emotion to memories (it helps us remember how we felt during past events).

Function of cingulate gyrus

It links emotions with thinking. In emotions, it helps us be aware of our emotions and controls emotional responses (it helps us manage emotional reactions and make decisions).

Function of basal ganglia

It controls movement and reward processing. In emotions, it plays a role in feelings of pleasure, motivation and emotional habits (it helps us learn what feels good or bad and respond emotionally).

Autonomic arousal

refers to automatic physical changes in the body that happen in response to emotional experiences. These changes are controlled by the **autonomic nervous system (ANS),** which operates without conscious control.

How does the SNS link to emotion?

When a person feels afraid or anxious, the amygdala detects the threat and activates the SNS, preparing the body to either confront or escape the danger.

Example of SNS working

If you’re walking alone at night and hear a sudden noise, your body may respond with a racing heart, tense muscles, and widened eyes — a sign of sympathetic activation

How does the PNS link to emotion?

After a threat passes, the PNS helps the body return to a relaxed state, reducing the physical symptoms of arousal.

Example of PNS working

After giving a stressful presentation, your body gradually calms down — your breathing slows, and your muscles relax — this is due to parasympathetic activation

What is the difference between the brain’s role in generating emotions and autonomic arousal?

In the brain, it processes emotional information and decides how we feel. In contrast, the autonomic nervous system (ANS) controls how thebody physically reacts to the emotion.

What factors affect happiness?

age, physical health, culture, religion, income and employment, and intentional activities

Age and happiness

Younger people may feel more intense happiness and as you grow older, overall happiness may grow greater

Physical health and happiness

Culture and happiness

Cultural expectations of the place where you live can influence happiness. This can also be of reduced stress.

Religion and happiness

Those who are actively religious have increased levels of happiness. This can be because they attend church regularly, and therefore have social engagements and a sense of community.

Income and employment, and happiness

being employed with good income increases happiness.

Intentional activities and happiness

intentional activities are deliberate actions individuals take to enhance their happiness

What does wellbeing include?

subjective wellbeing, psychological wellbeing, and the broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions

What is subjective wellbeing?

it focuses on how people evaluate their own lives. It focuses on Diener’s model of subjective wellbeing. People with higher SWB generally feel more positive than negative emotions and are satisfied with life. It includes life satisfaction and affective balance.

Who and when developed the model of subjective wellbeing?

Ed Diener in 1984

Life satisfaction

a person’s overall judgment of how satisfied they are with their life, influenced by fulfilment in important areas such as family, friends, and marriage. Measured using the Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS).

Affective balance

the mix of positive and negative emotions a person experiences over time. Greater wellbeing occurs when positive emotions outweigh negative ones. Measured using the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS).

What is psychological wellbeing?

it refers to functioning well and realising one’s potential, rather than just feeling good. It contains 6 dimensions - self-acceptance, positive relations, autonomy, environmental mastery, purpose in life and personal growth. The key idea of this is that wellbeing comes from personal growth and purposeful living, not just pleasure.

Who and when developed the psychological wellbeing dimensions?

Carol Ryff and Corey Keyes in 1995

What is the broaden-and-build theory?

it focuses on the role of positive emotions in building long-term resources. Positive emotions make you think and act in more open, flexible, and creative ways. This helps you explore, try new things, and connect with others. Over time, these experiences give you lasting benefits — like stronger friendships, better problem-solving skills, and the ability to bounce back from challenges. The main idea is that positive emotions aren’t just nice feelings; they actually help you grow and handle life better.

Who and when developed the broaden-and-build theory?

Barbara Fredrickson in 2004

Mindfulness

the practice of maintaining attention on the present moment, while accepting thoughts, feelings, and bodily sensations without judgement. It includes attention and acceptance.

Attention in mindfulness

deliberately noticing current experiences—like breathing, sounds, or sensations—rather than getting caught up in past or future thoughts. It involves controlling where your focus goes so you stay grounded in the moment.

Acceptance in mindfulness

noticing thoughts, feelings, and sensations with openness and without judgment. Instead of trying to change or criticise them, you let them be.

What is the goal-setting theory of motivation?

it proposes that goal setting can increase motivation

Who and when was the the goal-setting theory of motivation developed?

Edwin Locke in 1981 (expanded in 1996)

Describe the role of goal setting in motivation

Goal-setting directs attention, regulates effort (challenging goals means more effort while vague goals forces little effort), and increases persistence (challenging goals means you keep trying while vague goals you give up more easily) toward a task. Locke (1996) found that people are more motivated by specific and challenging goals than by vague or easy ones. Clear and difficult goals create purpose, push individuals to work harder, keep them going for longer, and lead to greater satisfaction when achieved.