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case study
In-depth examination of an individual or small group over an extended period, often using a variety of data sources such as interviews, observations, and psychological tests.
confounding variable
A variable other than the independent variable that could potentially influence the dependent variable, leading to inaccurate interpretations of the results.
control group
The group in an experiment that does not receive the treatment or intervention, used for comparison with the experimental group.
correlation
A statistical measure of the relationship between two variables, indicating how they change together. However, correlation does not imply causation.
correlation coefficient
A numerical value between -1 and +1 that represents the strength and direction of the relationship between two variables.
critical thinking
The objective analysis and evaluation of an issue to form a judgment. It involves questioning assumptions, examining evidence, and considering alternative perspectives.
debriefing
The process of providing participants with information about the purpose, procedures, and results of a research study after their participation, especially if deception was used.
dependent variable
The variable that is measured or observed in an experiment and is expected to change as a result of the manipulation of the independent variable.
descriptive statistics
Statistical techniques used to summarize and describe the characteristics or properties of a dataset, such as measures of central tendency and variability.
double-blind procedure
An experimental procedure in which both the participants and the researchers involved are unaware of who is assigned to the experimental or control group, reducing bias.
effect size
A measure of the strength or magnitude of the relationship between variables or the magnitude of a treatment effect, independent of sample size.
experiment
A research method in which one or more variables are manipulated to observe the effect on another variable, while controlling for extraneous factors.
experimental group
The group in an experiment that is exposed to the treatment or intervention being studied.
experimenter bias
The influence of the researcher's expectations or beliefs on the outcomes of an experiment, leading to unintentional bias in data collection or interpretation.
falsifiability
The principle that for a hypothesis or theory to be considered scientific, it must be possible to conceive of evidence that would prove it false.
hindsight bias
The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it. It's often referred to as the "I knew it all along" phenomenon.
histogram
A graphical representation of the distribution of numerical data, where the data is divided into intervals (bins) and the height of each bar represents the frequency or count of data points within each interval.
hypotheses
Testable predictions or educated guesses about the relationship between two or more variables, typically formulated as statements.
illusory correlation
The perception of a relationship between two variables when no such relationship exists, or the perceived relationship is weaker than it appears.
independent variable
The variable that is manipulated or controlled by the researcher in an experiment to observe its effect on the dependent variable.
inferential statistics
Statistical techniques used to make inferences or predictions about a population based on sample data, including hypothesis testing and estimation.
informed consent
The ethical principle requiring that participants in a research study are fully informed about the nature, purpose, risks, and benefits of participation before agreeing to take part.
mean
The average of a set of values, calculated by summing all values and dividing by the number of values.
median
The middle value in a dataset when the values are arranged in ascending or descending order. If there is an even number of values, the median is the average of the two middle values.
meta-analysis
A statistical technique for combining the findings from multiple studies on a particular topic to determine overall trends or effects.
mode
The most frequently occurring value in a dataset.
naturalistic observation
Observation of behavior in its natural context without interference or manipulation by the researcher.
normal curve
A symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that represents the distribution of scores in a population, with the mean, median, and mode all located at the center.
operational definitions
Precise descriptions of how variables in a study will be manipulated or measured. They specify the procedures used to define and measure concepts.
peer reviews
The evaluation of scientific, academic, or professional work by others in the same field to ensure its quality and validity before publication or presentation.
percentile rank
The percentage of scores in a distribution that are equal to or below a particular score.
placebo
An inactive substance or treatment that resembles the experimental treatment, used in research to control for the psychological effects of receiving treatment.
placebo effect
The phenomenon where individuals experience a change in their condition or behavior after receiving a placebo, due to their belief in the effectiveness of the treatment.
population
The entire group of individuals or cases that researchers are interested in studying and to which they intend to generalize their findings.
qualitative research
Research that focuses on gathering and analyzing non-numerical data, such as observations, interviews, or textual analysis, to understand meanings, experiences, or perspectives.
quantitative research
Research that focuses on gathering and analyzing numerical data to understand relationships, patterns, or trends.
random assignment
The process of assigning participants to experimental or control groups in a way that each individual has an equal chance of being placed in any group, reducing the likelihood of bias.
random sample
A sample in which every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected to participate in the study, increasing the generalizability of the findings.
range
The difference between the highest and lowest values in a dataset, representing the spread or dispersion of the data.
regression toward the mean
The tendency for extreme or unusual scores on a variable to move closer to the average or mean when measured again.
replicate
To repeat a research study or experiment to determine if the findings can be reliably reproduced.
sampling bias
A bias in which a sample is not representative of the population from which it is drawn, leading to inaccurate or ungeneralizable results.
scatterplot
A graphical representation of the relationship between two variables, where each data point represents an individual's score on both variables.
self-report bias
Inaccuracies or distortions in responses to surveys or questionnaires due to factors such as social desirability, memory recall, or misunderstanding of questions.
single-blind procedure
An experimental procedure in which either the participants or the researchers involved are unaware of who is assigned to the experimental or control group.
skewed distribution
A distribution of data in which the scores cluster more towards one end (positive skew) or the other end (negative skew) of the range, rather than being evenly distributed.
social desirability bias
The tendency for people to respond in a manner that they believe is socially acceptable or desirable, rather than providing honest or accurate answers.
standard deviation
A measure of the average distance of each data point from the mean of the dataset, indicating the degree of variability or dispersion in the data.
statistical significance
The likelihood that the results of a study are not due to chance, typically determined by comparing observed data with expected outcomes under the null hypothesis.
survey
This technique involves collecting data from a population through the use of questionnaires or interviews to gather information about attitudes, beliefs, behaviors, or characteristics.
theory
A well-supported explanation for a phenomenon based on evidence, observation, and experimentation. It integrates and organizes a set of related principles or concepts.
validity
The extent to which a research study measures what it claims to measure or accurately reflects the concept or phenomenon being studied.
variable
Any factor or condition that can change or vary in a research study. Variables are typically categorized as independent or dependent.
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