Unit 2: Global Climate, Vulnerability and resistance

Natural greenhouse effect:

outgoing longwave radiation is absorbed by greenhouse gases leading to an increase in global temperatures that allow for life to survive on earth

Enhanced greenhouse effect:

outgoing longwave radiation is absorbed by greenhouse gases that have been released intot he atmosphere by human activity to increase their concentration, leading to extra heat being trapped and global tempertaures to rise abive historic levels

Global energy balance:

the difference between incoming shortwave radiation (insolation) and outgoing longwave radiation that can be chnaged as a result of natural processes or human activities

Inputs:

energy gained from the sun

Outputs:

energy lost to space

Transfers:

convection, conduction and radiation

Describe the daytime energy budget:

1. Incoming Shortwave solar radiation (insolation): influeneced by cloud cover + dust in the atmosphere

2. Reflecetd solar radiation: Albedo effect = cooling effect

3. Surface absorbtion: dark surfaces such as soil absorbs heat = warming effect

4. Sensible heat transfer: loss or gain of energy without a phase chnage (convection + conduction)

5. Longwave radiation” emitted by the surface and passes into the atmosphere

6. Latent heat transfer: phase change, evaporation= cooling, condensation=warming effect

Describe the nightime energy budget:

1. Long wave radiation: energy loss due to clear skies ↑ output ↑drop in temp BUT if cloud cover then ↓ loss

2. Sub surface supply: heat stored during the day is transferred to the cool surface during the night (conduction)

3. sensible heat tranfer: moving warm air adds energy and keeps temp ↑

4. Latent heat energy transfer: at night vapour to condense to form dew- the process releases latent heat - gain oif energy for surface

State two naturally occurring greenhouse gases other than carbon dioxide. [1]

• Methane

• Water Vapour

Methane contribution + source?

• 20% of enhanced green house effect

• source: agricutlure , landfills, natural gas leak ( bioa mass decay) and bioamss burning

Nitrous oxide:

• 6% enhanced grenehouse effect

• artificial fertilisers and burning fossil fuels

Fluorinated gases:

• high warming potential

• aerosols. refrigeration units, air conditoning

Albedo effect:

the amount of insolation reflected h

Negative feed back loop:

reduces and dampens the effect of change stabilising the system

Dynamic equilibrium:

constant short-term adjustments made through negative feedback to maintain balance

Positive feedback loop:

enhances or amplfies the effects of change destablising the system

Feedback loop:

the amplification or reduction of an initial change by natural processes operating within a system. A positive feedback loop amplifies an initial change, while a negative feedback loop reduces it to achieve dynamic equilibrium.

• Explain two positive feedback loops that contribute to climate change. [6]

• Increased temperatures - cold permafrost melts and ice no longer preserves animals - decomposition of dead plants + animals occurs- CO2 and methane released in the atmosphere- enhanced greenhouse effect

• Increased global temperature- increased sea ice + glacial melt - newly exposed land and water have low albedo- more insolation absorbed - ↓ longwave radiation emitted = warming effect

Factors affecting solar radiation:

• Milankovitch cycles:

  • Eccentricity

  • Obliquity

  • precission

• Sunspot activity

• Global dimming

Eccentricity:

• the change in earth’s orbot every 100,000 years

• Ellipictical: extreme seasons, circular: not extreme

Obliquity:

• the chnage in earths axis (tilt) every 40,000 years

• longer tilt- larger differnce in seasons

Precission:

• the wobble (direction) in earth’s axis every 26,000 years

• decides the position of the north star

Sunspot activity:

heating of ccolspots of the sun and increased solar flares lead to increased avergae temperatures

• 11 year cycle

Global dimming:

reduction in the amount of solar energy reaching the Earth’s surface because volcanic activity or industrial activity has put dust in the atmosphere that reflects shortwave radiation away leading to a decrease in global temperatures

Tipping point:

the point at which the accumulation of small and gradual changes may sometimes cause a dramatic transformation

Explain two reasons for international variations in greenhouse gas emissions in relation to globalization. [4]

• Increased trade - cargo ships produce 3% of carbon emissions- increased GHGs

• Increased tourism- increased aerosols and GHGs from aeroplanes

• Explain two reasons why carbon emissions are higher in countries which have a higher GDP. [4]

• high GDP - high purchasing power - higher consumption of goods- high trades (GHG’s from transport) and high production of goods (GHGs from factories)

• high GDP- likey more working population- increased use of transport to go to jobs

• Explain two reasons why increased trade by emerging economies has led to increased greenhouse gas emissions. [4]

• Increased trade - increased transports thus fossil fuels (cheaps)- cargo ships produce 3% of carbon emissions- increased GHGs

• High demand- high production - industrialisation in emerging economies- production of goods from factories - increased GHGs

• Explain how the global energy balance can be changed by: solar radiation variations [2]

• Sunspot actvity and solar flares can leading to increased radiation being emitted from the sun on 11 year cycles- this would mean input is higher than output- warming

• Eccentricity every 100, 000 years- if orbit is elliptical, earth will be closer to sun during certain seasons- increased radiation- increased input

Explain how the global energy balance can be changed by: global dimming due to volcanic eruptions. [2]

• Volcanic activity releases atmospheric dust and aerosols- insolation in reflected back- cooling effect as increased output

• Outline how extreme warming can affect the albedo of a region. [2]

• high warming- icemelt- decreased albedo since water/ land

• Outline how extreme warming can affect the operation of a feedback loop. [2]

• temepratures above 45 degrees decrease the rate of photosynthesis- decreased carbon stored in soil/ roots- increased carbon in the atmopshere- global warming (positive loop)

• Outline what is meant by terrestrial albedo. [2]

the amount of insolation reflected from Earth’s surfaces where lighter surfaces reflcet a higher percentage of incoming shortwave radiation (not atmosphere, etc)

Global dimming case study:

• Mount Pinatubo- Phillippines 1991

• released 17 megatons SO2

• ash cloud (35km)

• 1992: 1C decrease in global temp

• natural, national, global

Eccentricity + obliquity case study:

• current tilt is 23.5

• beacuse of this Southern and Northern hemisphere have opposite seasons

• during southern summer, sun is 5 million km closer to the Sun at perihelion (due to elliptical orbit)

• thus S.H recieves 7% more radiation than N.H

• if obliquity and eccentrity are more ellipctal and higher, seasons will be mpre extreme

Renewable energy case study:

• GERMANY: 46% of energy mix is renewable energy

• led to a decrease carbon emissions from 12.03 (1990) to 7.26 (2020) megatons per capita

• Human, developed

Developing country/ industrialisation case study:

• China + 30% of global CO2 emission

• 60% from manufacturing of steel and concrete (infrastructure AND trades)

• human, developing

State and explain one change to agriculture caused by global climate change. [3]

Decreased agriculture due to soil infertility- desrtification- high temps so high evaporation + drought

• “Climate change will kill people.” To what extent do you agree with this statement? [10]

Explain two reasons why sea-level change may result from global warming. [4]

• high temperatures- increased glacial melt

• high temperatures- thermal expansion

Suggest two health hazards that may result from climate change. [2+2] [4]

• high temps- heat waves- heatstrokes

• high temp- favourable temps for pathogenic bacteria to grow- Lyme disease

Explain two ways in which climate change impacts upon ocean transport routes. [2+2] [4]

• high temps- increased glacial melt- new transport routes- example: Arctic Ice pack- now passage is 40% shorter

• High temps-high sea water temp- higher risk of tropical typhoons, etc- disrupting ocean routes

• Suggest how climate change may cause spatial changes in biomes. [2]

The artic tundra and boreal forests are moving pole-ward to cooler more suitable regions

Suggest how climate change may cause spatial changes in animal migration patterns. [2]

As biomes are moving to cooler climates- so are the animals that has them as their habitat- humpback wales are moving poleward

Flooding case study:

• 1/3 of Pakistan flooded: 2022

• 1700 deaths, 12, 800 injuries

• 2 million homes destroyed

• 7.9 million displaced

Desertification case study:

• 80% of Sahel region Africa desertified

• decreases in Baobab trees and Dama gazelle

• restoration created 350,000 jobs

Permafrost case study:

• Siberia, Russia

• 1.5 million hectares of permafrist thaw lead to

• 13% increase in agriculture

HEP case study:

• India

• 40-60% increase in discharge of himalayan fed river

• Increased energy for

• Tehri dam that supplies energy to 10 million people

Carbon offsetting:

reducing, avoidingor removing CO2 emissions in one part of the world to compensate for emissions in another

Carbon capture and storage:

the use of technology to capture, remove and store CO2 from industrial facilities and powerplants

Carbon tax:

a tax paid by organisations that produce extensive greenhouse emissions

Carbon trading:

the buying of credits to allow the organisation to emit more greenhouse emissions than their permit

Carbon credit:

a permit indicating the amount of greenhouse gas emissions an organisation is allowed to emit

How is Bangladesh vulnerable to climate change?

• low-lying , flat, 75% of country above sea level and 80% on floodplains of the Ganges, Brahmaputra and Meghna delta

• prone to flooding- The monsoon rainfall is predicted to rise by 40% by 2030 

• High population density- inadequate housing

• in 1998 (75% of Bangladesh was flooded) - 30 million homeless

• 42 milion illiterate

How is Ghana vulnerable to climate change?

• vulnerable to drought and reduced rainfall- Rainfall is expected to decrease 4% by 2040

• Projected to increase by a further 1-3°C by the 2060s

• 45% or workforce still in agriculture
  

Explain two reason why wealthy people are less vulnerable to climate change? (2+2)

• Are able to afford extreme weather events resistent infratsructure- safe from hazards/ or can relocate

• access to aducation- are aware on how to stay protected from extreme weather events

• can afford high food prices caused by decrased agriculture due to desertification

Mitigation:

actions that reduce emissions that contribute to global warming and climate change

Adaptation

actions which minimise or prevent the negative impacts of global warming and climate change

State and explain one geopolitical attempt to reduce the challenges posed by global climate change. [1+2] [3]

Nile Basin initiative between 11 countries including Egyot and ethiopia

• air and equitable access to the river’s water for drinking, agriculture, energy production (promotes HEP)

• High temps- droughts + low rainfall in northafrican arid countries- agreement provides stable supply of water

• Egypt 90% of water from this- 85% for agriculture

State and explain one global geopolitical attempt to mitigate the causes of global climate change. [3]

• The paris agreement

• international treaty with 196 countries

• limit warming to 1.5 C

• Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs): what is being done to reduce emission

Explain two geopolitical strategies used to reduce the effects of climate change? (2+2)

• Nile Basin initiative - equitable water supply

• African Union’s Great Green Wall Initiative: Afforrestation (30 million hectares so far)

State and explain two mitigation strategies that attempt to reduce the rate of global climate change. [6]

• Carbon trading: EU emission trading system: countries are give carbon permits/ allowances- cant exceed quota- decreased total emissions by 29%

• Renewable energy: 46% of germany’s energy mix, decrease from 12.03 to 7.96 megatons (1990-2020) as fossil fuels are not used

Explain how carbon offset schemes and carbon trading might lead to a global reduction in greenhouse gas emissions. [4]

• Afforestation projects remove CO2 from the atmosphere by photosynthesis - this would offset CO2 emissions produced by businesses

• Carbon trading would limit the number of CO2 emitted by creating a market in which emission permits issued by governments can be traded- companies that exceed their limit will have to buy from others

Geoengineering:

large scale intervention in Earth’s natural systems to counteract climate change

Enhanced weathering:

• adaptation strategy

• Spreading large amounts of crushed rockss in the sea to fix atmospheric CO2

• Carb Fix - ICELAND

• basalt tracks, grinded in fine power

• +ve: large scale carbon removal via naturally abundany materials

• -ve: increased land use for mining + distribution of the minberals= habitat destruction

• slow carbon removal rate

Ocean fertlisation:

• adaptation

• sumping iron sulphate in the ocean to stimulate phytoplankton growth - increased photosynthesis- decreased carbon

• Iron fertilisation experiment 2007: Antartctic ocean

• absorbed 1.5 megatons of CO2

• +ve: low cost + high potential as carbon sinks

• -ve: uncertainty about the ecological consequences- eutrophication

• short lived effects

BioChar:

• adaptation

• pyrolysis(biomass combustion with low oxygen) - carbon rich substance stored in soil

• Kenya: 2-3 tonnes of CO2/ per hectare every year in agricultural regions

• +ve: increased soil quality- decreased fertilisers

• -ve: land needed for large scale use

• expensive as high energy

Direct air capture:

• adaptation

• CO2 and other GHGs extracted from atmosphere using a chemical sorbent- large fans move air through filter

• Clime Works: Swiss company- in Iceland captured 4000 tonnes of CO2

• +ve: can be deployed anywhere, potentual for large scale

• -ve: expensive, adaptation, low incentive as impact global not localised

Civil society:

society considered as a community of citizens linked by common interests and collective activity

Corporate strategy case study Ikea:

• Ikea: commitment to being climate positive by 2030

• invested 2.5 million euros in renewabele energy projects : purchased 547 wind turbines and 935,000 solar panels

• 60% of Ikeas product are made from recycled substances

• anual reduction of 1.5 megatons

Civil strategy case study:

• Kigali Cooling Efficiency Program : Rwanda

• promotes efficient air conditioning and refrigeration in hot climates and traditional cooling methods

• Collaborating with the International Energy Agency (IEA), K-CEP's activities are estimated to prevent the emission of 4.2 gigatons of CO₂ by 2050,

Explain two corporate strategies used to address global climate change. [4]

• Unilever if focused on having a carbon-neutral supply chain by having agrculturally sustainable raw material suppliers- 52% decrease in in CO2 per ton of a product

• Ikea encourages a circular economy by using recycled materials for 60% of its products and having felxible return policies

• Explain how two methods of geo-engineering could mitigate climate change. [2+2] [4]

Direct air capture: removing CO2 and other greenhouse gases from the air by using a chemical sorbent and moving the air through filters via fans

Biochar: cyrolysis- low oxygen combustion of biomass to produce a carbon rich substance from pulling atmospheric carbon

• Suggest two human factors that can increase vulnerability to extreme weather events. [2+2] [4]

• Wealth - if low wages, likely not able to afford strong and resistent housing- less safe

• Age - elderly have more chronic health problems- less likely to flee from potential harm- weaker bodies

• Gender- in developing countries - have decreased acess to education - unaware of how to survive extreme weather events

• Explain two government-led strategies to reduce the causes of global climate change. [2+2] [4]

• EU emission trading system- carbon trading and credit- CO2 quotas

• India- National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPPC) - energy effciency- renenwable energy 170 GW- 20% decrease in CO2 per unit gdp (2005-2020)

• Suggest two ways in which economic development leads to international variations in greenhouse gas emissions. [2 + 2] [4]

• can afford renewable energy

• can invest in energy preserving infrastructure

• Explain two reasons why wealthy people are less vulnerable to climate change. [2 + 2] [4]

• can afford to invest in airconditioning, etc →dont have to deal with warm temps

• often have tertiary sector jobs- not impacted by climate chang directly unlike agriculture

• Outline one way in which patterns of animal migration are affected by climate change [2]

• birds migrate earlier→issues as not in spring when insects pollinate flowers so ↓ food source

• Suggest two ways in which social differences may lead to increased vulnerability to climate change [4]

• LIC households won’t be able to adapt to climate change →↓ flood insurance

• ↑ frwshwater temp- ↑ bacteria →wont be able to afford sanitisation systems

“Climate change will amplify disparities.” To what extent do you agree with this statement? [10]

• Climate change will amplify social disparities in developing countries- extreme weather events- Bangladesh low lying- vulnerable to flood as 80% in Delta of 3 converging rivers- In 1998 flood, 30 million homeless- already 40% lives below poverty line

• Climate change will amplify

• Climate change will amplify economic disparities on a global scale- many developing countries that haven’t industrialised yet- primary sector- desertification-Sahel region 80% desertified- whereas developed countries- russia- permadrost melt- 13% increase in agriculture

• Climate change will amplify

‘The power to effect change is in the hands of the masses not the few.’ To what extent do you agree with this statement? [10]

• “Responding to climate change is more important than working towards the UN Sustainable Development Goals.” To what extent do you agree with this statement? [10]