Language Change Flashcards

Diachronic Linguistics

The study of changes over time. Can be a general evolution of all languages or the evolution of a particular language or dialect.

Might focus more on the interplay of historical events and language changes.

Synchronic linguistics

The study of elements and uses of a language at a particular moment

Lexical borrowing

Lexemes (loanwords) absorbed by one language through contact with another

Neosemy

A process in which new meaning develops for a word. The original semantic meaning and lexeme exist still alongside the new word

Semantic shift

Change in a words meaning over time

Levels of synonymy

As language absorbs loanwords, some will have similarities and so can diverge to become more semantically specific perhaps based on context, formality or connotation

Standardisation

The process of maintaining and establishing conventional forms of a language. May be natural or an imposing effort by a specific group to create a standard.

Codification

The process where certain linguistic features are recognised as standard and others are rejected

Regularisation

A ‘neatening’ of language elements to fit prominent patterns

Informalisation

A trend for language, particularly in the written mode, to become more informal over time

Inkhorn term

Lexical borrowing into English considered unnecessary or pretentious, especially in the renaissance

Diffusion

The spread of change, especially a sound change, through a language

David crystal

Tide metaphor

• language change is similar to the tide = evolves and will continue to do so

• Illustrates that all change is different affects different groups of people and lasts for different amounts of time

• New and old - new things are washed up, while old things are taken away

• Permanence - some things stay permanently, while others may stay for a short time

• Uniqueness - no two tides are exactly the same

• Impact - some tides only affect certain parts of the beach

• Unpredictability - language change is unpredictable, just like the tides

Halliday

Functional theory

• language alters at the needs of its user

• New lexemes appear as they are required for new inventions

• Other lexemes become archaic once they are unnecessary

Lexical gap theory

New lexemes coined through necessity to fill ‘ lexical gaps’

• neologisms not currently in use but will fit current patterns of a language

• May fill phonological gaps

Postal

Random fluctuation

• language is as unpredictable as fashion

Hockett = change unpredictable due to errors which occur by chance and then transmitted through contact

Linguistic reflectionionism

A persons language reflects their way of thinking

Linguistic determinism

Language can determine a thought

(Availability of non-sexist language, then less likely to hold sexist attitudes)

Linguistic relativism

The language a person speaks has on influence on a persons thought

Haugen

Process of standardisation

• selection - a prestigious variety of language is chosen

• Codification - establishment of linguistic norms, reducing internal variety

• Elaboration - language is developed for a variety of purposes

• Implementation - language variety is given currency through production of (official) written texts

Bailey

Wave model

• a new aspect of language is initiated in one place at one time and spreads outwards from that point

• A person/ group closest to the centre of a language change will pick it up whereas a person further out is less likely to adopt it

• Different innovations spread at different rates, in different directions so, so areas may not coincide

Chen

S-curve model of diffusion

• A pronunciation change occurs in one or a small number of words, then it gathers momentum and the rate of diffusion to other lexemes becomes rapid

• A critical point is reached and the rate of change slows or stops

Mackinnon

Polarised views to language

• language is viewed towards extremes

• Correct/incorrect, pleasant/ugly, acceptable/unacceptable, useful/useless, appropriate/inappropriate

Aichison’s metaphorical models

Language change as a slow decay

• damp spoon syndrome - attitude that laziness is leading to changes in language, like a damp spoon in a sugar bowl

• Crumbling castle - language as a beautiful old building that needs to be preserved but has long passed its pinnacle

• Infectious disease - changes are ‘caught’ through contact with dangerous/inferior varieties

Jesperson

Economy as progress

• language change as progressive when it creates economy

• Change is progress when we can ‘express the greatest amount of meaning with the simplest mechanism’

Zwicky

Linguistic ‘illusions’

• frequency illusion - once you’ve noticed a phenomenon, it seems to happen a lot

• Recency illusion - the belief that something is a recent phenomenon, when it has actually existed for a long time

• adolescent illusion - belief that adolescents are the cause of undesirable language changes

Martinet

The principle of Economy

• Language trends change in ways that rescue effort for speakers while maintaining clarity for listeners

• This balance of ‘economy’ and ‘functional load’ are central to understanding why languages often simplify over time

• Linguistic forms only survive as long as they are needed for clear communication

• Redundant forms are likely to be dropped, leading to simplification

Superstratum influence

A more powerful language influences a low variety (eg, Latin and Anglo-saxon)

Substratum influence

A language with lower power and prestige influencing a higher variety (eg, cockney)

Adstratum influence

Languages of equal status and prestige (eg, Old Norse and Anglo-Saxon)

Horizontal transmission

Language change among individuals of the same generation

Vertical transmission

A member of one generation passes features to a younger generation

A member of an older generation passes something to a non-related member of the younger generation

Drummond

Change is natural, allowed for identity enacting and performativity

You can’t say language is declining just because you don’t understand or fear it

Joseph and Hock

“Languages […] do not exist in a vacuum”

• always linguistic contact between groups influencing changes