Youth & Society Exam 2

What are life chances? Describe how race, class, and gender affect the life chances for youth and adolescents.

The opportunities and barriers individuals face in accessing resources like education, healthcare, employment, and social mobility.

-Race: Experience discrimination and unequal access to quality education and housing. Systemic racism and neighborhood segregation further restrict opportunities.

-Class: High-class typically have better schools, safer environments, and more support. Lower-class face resource shortages and instability, limit their future opportunities.

-Gender: Gender influences shape expectations and opportunities—girls face barriers in STEM fields, wage inequality, and gender-based violence. Boys experience pressure to suppress emotions, avoid “feminine” interests, which can affect academic success and mental health.

What are the three main categories of sources that contribute to disparities in adolescent outcomes?

(1) differences in family wealth and income, combined with living in neighborhoods segregated by income and race

(2) differences in institutional responses to adolescents by schools, the health system, the justice system, or the welfare system

(3) prejudicial or discriminatory attitudes or behavior on the part of adults or peers who interact with adolescents on a regular basis.

What is the relationship between exposure to community violence and adolescent development? Why does neighborhood resources and where youth live matter?

Triggers an adverse stress response. Correlated with increased risk of cardiovascular disease, hypertension, asthma, diabetes, depression, and anxiety.

Neighborhood resources shape access to quality schools, safe environments, healthcare, and community programs.

What is the “school-to-prison pipeline”? Describe the school discipline disparities by race.

Pattern in which harsh school discipline policies—like suspensions, expulsions, and police referrals—push students, especially from marginalized groups, out of schools and toward the criminal justice system.

Black and Latino students are disciplined more frequently and more severely than white students. Black youth are more than twice as likely as Whites to be arrested as juveniles.

Who are the “crossover youth” and why are they significant?

Youth involved in both CPS and juvenile justice; Worse outcomes than other youth, more likely to be arrested as adults, less likely to be employed, and more likely to receive public assistance in adulthood.

How does the experience of youth in the juvenile justice system vary by race/ethnicity?

Youth of color—especially Black, Latino, and Native American youth—are more likely to be arrested, detained, and sentenced harshly. Less access to quality legal representation, rehabilitation programs, and community-based alternatives.

Explain how socioeconomic status can affect the health outcomes of youth.

Lower SES associated with increased risks of depression, anxiety, behavioral problems, higher rates of obesity, chronic respiratory
issues like asthma, and cardiovascular diseases

What are the key pathways explaining how SES impacts youth health?

• Limited resources and opportunities
• Increased stress
• Unhealthy behaviors
• Poor educational and cognitive development

Describe the experiences of working-class Latina/o youth in relation to financial labor, legal labor, cultural labor, and emotional labor. How are their experiences unique compared to other youth?

Financial labor: contributing to their family’s income through part-time or informal jobs to support household needs.

Legal labor: navigating complex immigration systems or advocating for family members’ legal rights.

Cultural labor: translating language, mediating between Latino and mainstream American cultures, and maintaining family traditions.

Emotional labor: arises as they manage stress, discrimination, and the pressure to succeed for their families’ sake.

Require Latina/o youth to balance adult responsibilities, cultural expectations, and systemic barriers far earlier.

According to the authors of The Promise of Adolescence: Realizing Opportunity for All Youth, what broad societal changes have occurred in the 21st century that schools need to be responsive to? What strategies are recommended to provide more individualized instruction in schools?

Changes in the labor market returns to education, in the growing importance of nonacademic skills, and in out-of-school learning environments

Tutoring, technology-assisted instruction, tracking (sorting youth academically), credentialing

How can stereotypes and biases affect the student experience in schools?

• Discourage girls from pursuing science and math careers

• Teachers have the highest expectations for Asian students and lowest for Black/Hispanic

• Teachers have more negative relationships and referrals with Black/Hispanic

What is tracking? Why do some sociologists argue that tracking reinforces existing social and educational inequalities?

Sorting youth together based on how they are performing academically. May result in students being “stuck” in lower academic levels and widen gap among students

Describe how between-school and within-school differences in education contribute to social inequality.

Between-school: Variations in funding, resources, teacher
quality, class size, curriculum, and neighborhood socioeconomic status

Within-school: Practices like tracking, teacher expectations, hidden curriculum, and disciplinary disparities

Give some students more preparation and access to success than others.

How can school size and class size affect student achievement? How does the school climate affect student achievement?

School and class size: Smaller schools and class sizes lead to stronger student–teacher relationships, more individualized attention, and higher academic performance. In contrast, larger schools and overcrowded classrooms can make students feel less supported.

School climate: A positive school climate—where students feel safe, respected, and included—promotes motivation, attendance, and academic success. A negative or hostile climate, marked by bullying or discrimination, can increase stress and disengagement, lowering overall achievement.

What are academic achievement gaps? Describe these achievement gaps by socioeconomic status, race/ethnicity, and sex/gender.

When one group of students outperforms another group
and the difference in average scores for the two groups is
statistically significant.

Socioeconomic status: Lower SES score lower in mathematics

Race/ethnicity: Higher dropout rates for Native, Hispanic, and Black

Sex/Gender: Girls test better in English; for high SES, boys test higher in math

How do family characteristics and family background contribute to academic success and the achievement gap? How does parenting style affect student academic success and the achievement gap?

Family characteristics and background:
Families with more resources can provide educational materials, enrichment activities, and stable environments, while lower-income families may face stressors that limit academic support.

Parenting style:
Authoritative parenting linked to higher academic achievement and stronger motivation.

How do the reading and math test scores for boys and girls vary? How does social class affect these scores?

Girls score better in reading; Among high SES, boys score better in math.

Among low SES, boys and girls scores in math don’t have a significant difference

Why do some argue there is a “boys crisis” in education?

Boys, on average, earn lower grades, are more likely to be disciplined, and have higher dropout rates than girls.

Critics suggest that schools often favor behaviors associated with girls—like compliance and organization—while discouraging boys’ learning styles.

What does Morris argue researchers should focus on when examining the academic gender gap?

How gender is constructed and performed in school settings, rather than only comparing boys’ and girls’ test scores or behaviors.

He emphasizes examining the social processes, expectations, and interactions that shape how masculinity and femininity influence students’ engagement, discipline, and achievement.

What is ‘doing gender’? How does ‘doing gender’ and masculinity contribute to the academic gender gap?

Refers to the idea that gender is not something we simply are, but something we actively perform through our behaviors, interactions, and choices based on societal expectations.

In schools, ‘doing masculinity’ can contribute to the academic gender gap when boys reject behaviors seen as “feminine,” such as studying hard, being obedient, or showing emotion, to prove their masculinity.

Provide explanations for the academic achievement gap by race/ethnicity.

Structural inequalities—such as unequal school funding, segregated neighborhoods, and limited access to advanced courses—create disparities in educational opportunity.

Cultural and social factors, including bias in teacher expectations and culturally irrelevant curricula.

Family and community resources also differ, with some students facing economic hardship.

Discrimination and systemic racism can lead to stress, lower expectations, and fewer opportunities

What is the relationship between contemporary racial segregation and academic achievement gaps? What mechanisms affect this relationship?

Segregated schools often reflect and reinforce broader social and economic inequalities. Students in predominantly minority and low-income schools typically have fewer resources, less-experienced teachers, larger class sizes, and lower-quality facilities.

(1) resource disparities

(2) peer effects

(3) teacher quality and turnover

(4) institutional bias

Thinking about the documentary Dropout Nation, describe the broader social factors that affect the high school dropout rate. Provide specific examples from the documentary to support your answer.

Economic inequality plays a major role, as students from low-income families often face pressure to work to support their households. (Marco working full time, Sparkle being homeless)

Family structure and support students from single-parent households or families with lower educational attainment facing more challenges. (Lawerence having no example of a parent who has not dropped out)

What is the status dropout rate? What are the limitations of how the status dropout rate is measured?

The status dropout rate is the percentage of 16–24 year-olds who are not in school and have not completed high school.

Often underestimates dropout rates because it excludes institutionalized or hard-to-reach youth, counts GED recipients as graduates, and cannot distinguish between temporary and permanent dropouts.

How does the status dropout rate vary by race/ethnicity, sex, and foreign-born status?

Race/ethnicity: Native, black, and hispanic have higher status dropout

Sex: Men have higher status dropout

Foreign-born status: Higher status dropout

Describe how family background and community characteristics influence the status dropout rate.

Students from families with lower socioeconomic status, limited financial resources, or lower parental education are more likely to drop out

Family structure also matters: youth from single-parent households or highly unstable family environments face higher dropout risks

Community characteristics, such as living in economically disadvantaged neighborhoods, high-crime areas, or communities with poorly funded schools, also increase dropout likelihood

What do the pull-out theories of dropping out refer to? What do the push-out theories of dropping out refer to? Provide examples of both theories that help explain the factors that increase the risk of dropping out.

Pull-out: external factors outside of school that draw students away from education

-ex. out of school employment, family responsibilities, moving

Push-out: school-related factors that encourage students to leave

-ex. disciplinary policies, conflicts in school, academics

What roles does the social capital model and collective socialization hypothesis have on explaining why someone would drop out of high school?

Social capital model: social networks and the lack of resources in a neighborhood increase the likelihood of dropping out

Collective socialization hypothesis: norms, aspirations, and behaviors of adolescents are greatly shaped by social interactions with neighborhood residents and by the overall neighborhood cultural contexts

What are the effects of dropping out for individuals and for society?

Individuals: Less likely to participate in the labor force, more likely to have low-wage jobs with few advancement opportunities, poorer mental and physical health, probability of being incarcerated, dependent on government programs

Society: increased costs for incarceration, income transfer programs, and foregone tax income

What is credentialism? How has the significance of credentials impacted the education and work experiences of today’s youth?

increasing emphasis on formal educational qualifications—like diplomas, degrees, or certificates—as a measure of a person’s ability or suitability for a job, rather than focusing solely on actual skills, knowledge, or experience.

Rising educational requirements, increased competition, stratifies labor market

How do signaling theory and social closure explain how dropping out of school affects future work prospects?

Signaling theory – Employers with limited amount of information to
evaluation job candidates look for signals about potential productivity
-Assume the qualities of a high school dropout

Social closure – Social groups attempt to reduce competition by limiting opportunities
-exclude high school dropouts from even applying

What type of work were adolescents engaged in during 17th and 18th centuries? How did the industrialization revolution change adolescent work and employment?

Boys worked on farms, girls cared for domestic animals and did household work. Industrialization led to adolescents working long hours in factories, dangerous.

Briefly describe how teen employment trends changed from the 1950s to now.

From 1950s to 1990, teen employment increased. From 1990 to 2010, decreased dramatically. Slowly increasing from 2010 to now.

Provide explanations for the significant decline in teen employment in the early 2000s.

• Great Recession, teen jobs the first to go

• Brick-and-mortar stores declining

• Outsourcing of jobs

• Greater competition

• Focus on academics and college admission

How does teen employment vary by race/ethnicity, socioeconomic status, and age? Provide explanations for these differences.

Race/ethnicity: Black and Hispanic less likely to work than white

-Fewer social networks, discrimination, live in economically depressed areas

Socioeconomic status: Middle class most likely to work

-Higher class focus on academics, lower class have less employment opportunities

Age: Older teens more likely to work

-Child labor laws deter employers

Which industry are teens more likely to be working in?

Hospitality and retail

What is defined as intense work? What outcomes are associated with intense work?

More than 20 hours per week.

• Poor school attendance and motivation

• Risk of dropout

• Problem behaviors

• Poor health outcomes

What are the benefits of adolescent employment?

• Self-management skills (being on time)

• Responsibility

• Money management

• Social skills

• Work ethnic

What does NEET refer to? What individual and institutional factors affect the likelihood of youth being NEET?

Not in education, employment, or training.

-Illness, disability, caring for family

-Labor market changes, fewer traditionally male jobs

What is underemployment? Why are young people likely to experience underemployment?

Working in a job that is below the employee’s full working capacity. Young people lack experience and professional networks. Credential inflation (higher training and education requirements)

How does responding to youth underemployment differ by socioeconomic status?

• Middle- and upper-class youth: more financial security, social networks, and family support, allowing them to treat underemployment as a temporary or voluntary stage.

• Working-class youth: experience underemployment as involuntary and constrained by economic necessity. With limited financial buffers, they must accept low-wage.

How does youth underemployment vary by gender?

Women more likely to be underemployed