Philosophy Terminology

argument

argument

a set of premises (propositions) used to support another premise (conclusion)

proposition

a statement capable of a truth value

premise

a proposition used to ground and justify a conclusion

conclusion

a judgement based on the information obtained

standard form

conclusion separate from premise with an inference line

deductive argument

an argument where if the premises are true then the conclusion must be true

inductive argument

an argument where if the premises are true, then the conclusion is probably true

fallacy

an error in reasoning

validity

a deductive argument where conclusion's truth guaranteed by the truth of the premise

sound

the argument is valid and the premises are true

strength

the extent at which the premises and conclusions are to be accepted

conditional

form of a deductive argument "if A, then B"

antedecent

does the guaranteeing (deductive)

consequent

thing being guaranteed (deductive)

necessary

condition that must be present for a certain result to occur

sufficent

a statement where the truth is enough to guarantee the truth of another given statement

reasoning

attempt to justify conclusion

justification (good reasoning)

the attempt to support reasoning to a conclusion by providing reason for it

inference

the move from premise to conclusion

inference indication

explicit signal to audience that there is a moving from premise to conclusion

Generalization

A conclusion drawn from specific information that is used to make a broad statement about a topic or person

counter argument

an argument or set of reasons put forward to oppose an idea or theory developed in another argument.

persuasion (bad reasoning)

reason to change belief on something

deductive inference indicators

Therefore, so, thus, etc.

inductive inference indicators

should, probably, etc.

reasoning indicators

because, since, as, for, etc.

evaluation

evaluate the validity of a premise to draw a conclusion

standard form

a numbered breakdown of parts of an argument

Denying the Antecedent Fallacy

The fallacy in deductive reasoning and logic

LOOKING FOR THE WORD "NOT"

If P then Q Not P Therefore, not Q

Affirming the Consequent Fallacy

fallacy in deductive reasoning and logic

If P then Q Q Therefore P

Modus Ponens structure

If P then Q P Therefore Q

modus tollen structure

If P then Q Not Q Therefore not P

Modus Ponens translation

the way of affirming

Modus Tollens translation

the way of denying

chain argument

Three conditional statements that link together If A, then B If B, then C Therefore, if A, then C

Hypothetical Syllogism

arguments with one hypothetical conditional premise

categorical syllogism

A syllogism in which the premises and conclusion describe the relationship between two categories by using statements that begin with all, no, or some.

Argument by Elimination

a deductive argument that rules out different possibilities until only one remains

Analogies

a comparison between two objects, or systems of objects, that highlights respects in which they are thought to be similar

Generalization

A conclusion drawn from specific information that is used to make a broad statement about a topic or person

formal fallacies

fallacies that can be deducted by examining the form of an argument (deductive arguments only)

informal fallacies

fallacies deducted by examining the content of the argument

bandwagon fallacy

reasoning that suggests that because everyone else believes something or is doing something, then it must be valid or correct

Appeal to Nature Fallacy

Making the argument that because something is 'natural' it is therefore valid, justified, inevitable, good, or ideal.

ad hominem

In an argument, this is an attack on the person rather than on the opponent's ideas. It comes from the Latin meaning "against the man."

Tu Quo Que (Two Wrongs Don't Make a Right)

This justifies an unethical action by claiming that another person did something equally wrong.

post hoc ergo propter hoc

improperly assuming that a sequence in time implies a cause and effect: after this, therefore this

Appeal to Wrong Authority Fallacy

When a person appeals to the opinion of some respected, well-known or influential person/group to support their position they are said to be appealing to authority.

slippery slope fallacy

a logical fallacy that assumes once an action begins it will lead, undeterred, to an eventual and inevitable conclusion

faulty analogy fallacy

a fallacy that occurs when an analogy compares two things that are not comparable

Appeal to Emotion Fallacy

manipulating an emotional response in place of a valid or compelling argument

Gambler's Fallacy

the belief that the odds of a chance event increase if the event hasn't occurred recently

fallacy of composition

the incorrect belief that what is true for the individual, or part, must necessarily be true for the group, or the whole

Fallacy of Division

Assuming that what is true of the whole is true for the parts.

begging the question Fallacy

Often called circular reasoning, __ occurs when the believability of the evidence depends on the believability of the claim.

false dilemma/dichotemy fallacy

argument in which a speaker reduces available choices to only two even though other alternatives exist; also called the either-or fallacy

Hasty Generalization

A fallacy in which a faulty conclusion is reached because of inadequate evidence.

Strawman Fallacy

A fallacy that occurs when the actual argument appears to be refuted, but in reality a related point is addressed.

red herring fallacy

when a speaker introduces an irrelevant issue or piece of evidence to divert attention from the subject of the speech

cogent argument

an argument that makes sense logically