Unit Five: Cognitive Psychology

Acoustic Encoding

the encoding of sound, especially the sound of words

Visual Encoding

the encoding of picture images

Semantic Encoding

the encoding of meaning, including the meaning of words

Acronym

a word formed from the initial letters of a multi-word name

Acrostic

an arrangement of words in which the first letters in each line spell out a word

Amnesia

partial or total loss of memory

Infantile amnesia

the inability to remember events that occurred during one's early years (before age three)

Anterograde amnesia

loss of memory for events immediately following a trauma

retrograde amnesia

loss of memory for events immediately preceding a trauma

Chunking

Organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically.

Context-dependent memory

Theory that info learned in a particular situation or place is better remembered when in that same situation or place.

mood-dependent memory

tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood

state-dependent memory

The theory that information learned in a particular state of mind (e.g., depressed, happy, somber) is more easily recalled when in that same state of mind.

decay

loss of memory due to the passage of time, during which the memory trace is not used

encoding failure

the inability to recall specific information because of insufficient encoding of the information for storage in long-term memory

repression

in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories

suppression

(psychology) the conscious exclusion of unacceptable thoughts or desires

interference

the suppression of one bit of information by another

proactive interference

the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information

retroactive interference

the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information

declarative memory

Memory of knowledge that can be called forth consciously as needed

non-declarative memory

Implicit Memory

deja vu

the experience of thinking that a new situation had occurred before

distributed practice

spacing the study of material to be remembered by including breaks between study periods

mass practice

a practice schedule in which studying continues for long periods without interruption

echoic memory

a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds

iconic memory

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second

effortful processing

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

automatic processing

unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings

eidetic imagery

A form of memory, often called photographic memory, which consists of especially vivid visual recollections of material.

elaborative rehearsal

a memorization method that involves thinking about how new information relates to information already stored in long-term memory

maintenance rehearsal

A system for remembering involving repeating information to oneself without attempting to find meaning in it

episodic memory

the collection of past personal experiences that occurred at a particular time and place

semantic memory

your memory for meanings and general (impersonal) facts

procedural memory

Memory of learned skills that does not require conscious recollection

explicit memory

memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare"

implicit memory

memories we don't deliberately remember or reflect on consciously

eyewitness testimony

Persuasive but flawed memory recall subjected to interpretation by person reporting it.

flashbulb memory

a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event

forgetting curve

founded by Hermann Ebbinghaus. displays retention of information and forgetting over time. conclusions to this were that most forgetting happens right after learning something. this was modified to that forgetting doesn't occur that quickly if the subject is memorizing more meaningful material

hippocampus

a neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage

information-processing model

a model of memory in which information must pass through discrete stages via the processes of attention, encoding, storage, and retrieval

Long-term memory

The relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences

long term potentiation

an increase in a synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory

method of loci

use of familiar locations as cues to recall items that have been associated with them

peg word method

A mnemonic system in which items to be remembered are associated with a set of mental pegs that one already has in memory, such as key words of a rhyme

mnemonic devices

techniques for using associations to memorize and retrieve information

overlearning

Continued rehearsal of material after one first appears to have mastered it.

primacy effect

The tendency to show greater memory for information that comes first in a sequence.

recency effect

The tendency to show greater memory for information that comes last in a sequence.

recall

the process of remembering (especially the process of recovering information by mental effort)

recognition

a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test

repression

(psychiatry) the classical defense mechanism that protects you from impulses or ideas that would cause anxiety by preventing them from becoming conscious

retrieval

The process of obtaining information that has been stored in memory

retrieval cues

stimuli that aid the recall or recognition of information stored in memory

schema

a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information

self reference effect

the tendency to process efficiently and remember well information related to oneself

semantic memory

knowledge of language, including its rules, words, and meanings

short term memory

activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten

spacing effect

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice

distributed study

spacing out your study secessions over several days gives you a better long term recall of information

tip of the tongue phenomenon

condition of being almost, but not quite, able to remember something; used to investigate the nature of semantic memory

algorithms

Problem-solving procedures or formulas that guarantee a correct outcome, if correctly applied

availability heuristic

estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind, we presume such events are common

representativeness heuristic

judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead one to ignore other relevant information

belief bias

the tendency for one's preexisting beliefs to distort logical reasoning, sometimes by making invalid conclusions seem valid, or valid conclusions seem invalid

belief perseverence

clinging to one's initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited

cognitive psychology

the scientific study of all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicatin

concept

a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people.

confirmation bias

A tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence

convergent thinking

thinking that brings together information focussed on solving a problem (especially solving problems that have a single correct solution)

divergent thinking

thinking that moves away in diverging directions so as to involve a variety of aspects and which sometimes lead to novel ideas and solutions

deductive reasoning

reasoning from the general to the particular (or from cause to effect)

inductive reasoning

reasoning from detailed facts to general principles

exemplar

A model or original; an example

prototype

a mental image or best example of a category. (as when comparing feathered creatures to a bird, such as a robin).

framing

the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgements

functional fixedness

the tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions; an impediment to problem solving

mental set

a tendency to approach a problem in a particular way, especially a way that has been successful in the past but may or may not be helpful in solving a new problem

hindsight bias

the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it

insight

a sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem

overconfidence bias

the tendency to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments

trial and error learning

learning that takes place when a child tries several solutions before finding one that works

Noam Chomsky

language development; disagreed with Skinner about language acquisition, stated there is an infinite # of sentences in a language, humans have an inborn native ability to develop language

Wolfgang Kohler

Gestalt psychologist that first demonstrated insight through his chimpanzee experiments. He noticed the solution process wasn't slow, but sudden and reflective.

Elizabeth Loftus

Her research on memory construction and the misinformation effect created doubts about the accuracy of eye-witness testimony

George A. Miller

Found that short term memory has the capacity of about 7 (+/- 2) items.

fluid intelligence

our ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease during late adulthood

crystallized intelligence

our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age

Flynn effect

The rise in average IQ scores that has occurred over the decades in many nations

stereotype threat

a self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype

savant syndrome

a condition in which a person otherwise limited in mental ability has an exceptional specific skill, such as in computation or drawing

Spearman's Two-Factor Theory

said a general intelligence (g) underlies all mental abilities (typical IQ of today)

Sternberg's Triarchic Theory

our intelligence is best classified into three areas that predict real-world success: analytical, creative, and practical

Howard Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences

Eight intelligences in problem solving: namely linguistic, musical, logical-mathematical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, naturalistic, interpersonal, and intrapersonal. Possible ninth is existential.

Lewis Terman

revised Binet's IQ test and established norms for American children; tested group of young geniuses and followed in a longitudinal study that lasted beyond his own lifetime to show that high IQ does not necessarily lead to wonderful things in life

Alfred Binet

pioneer in intelligence (IQ) tests, designed a test to identify slow learners in need of help-not applicable in the U.S. because it was too culture-bound (French)

IQ

mental age/chronological age x 100

David Wechsler

Developed WAIS and WISC (IQ tests)

Frances Galton

maintained that personality and ability depend almost entirely on genetic inheritance (human traits are inherited)