Chapter 12 Vocabulary Keywords

deductive reasoning

Logically drawing specific conclusions from general premises or statements.

conditional reasoning task

Evaluating a statement in "if…then" format to determine its logical validity.

propositional reasoning task

A task that involves drawing conclusions from premises that are expressed in propositional (logical) form.

syllogism

A type of reasoning that uses two premises to arrive at a logical conclusion.

propositional calculus

A system for categorizing logical statements and their relationships using symbols.

propositions

Statements that are either true or false, used as the building blocks of logical reasoning.

antecedent

The "if" part of a conditional statement in logic (e.g., If it rains, then the ground will be wet).

consequent

The "then" part of a conditional statement (e.g., If it rains, then the ground will be wet).

affirming the antecedent

A valid form of reasoning that confirms the "if" part and concludes the "then" part.

affirming the consequent

A logical fallacy that incorrectly assumes the truth of the antecedent based on the consequent.

denying the antecedent

A logical error where one incorrectly concludes the consequent is false because the antecedent is false.

denying the consequent

A valid logical inference that if the "then" part is false, the "if" part must also be false.

heuristic

A mental shortcut or rule of thumb that simplifies decision making, but may lead to errors.

dual‐process theory

The idea that two types of cognitive processes—fast and intuitive (Type 1), and slow and deliberate (Type 2)—govern reasoning and decision making.

Type 1 processing

Fast, automatic, and intuitive thinking that requires little cognitive effort.

Type 2 processing

Slower, effortful, and logical thinking used for complex reasoning and decision making.

belief‐bias effect

The tendency to judge the strength of arguments based on personal beliefs rather than logic.

confirmation bias

The tendency to seek and favor information that confirms one’s existing beliefs while ignoring contradictory evidence.

decision making

Selecting one option from several possibilities based on reasoning or preference.

representative

An item or event that is perceived as typical or similar to others in a category.

representativeness heuristic

A mental shortcut where people judge probabilities based on how much something resembles a typical example.

small‐sample fallacy

The mistaken belief that small samples will closely reflect larger population statistics.

base rate

The general frequency of something occurring in the population.

base‐rate fallacy

When people ignore statistical base rates in favor of specific or vivid information.

conjunction rule

The probability of two events together cannot be higher than the probability of either one alone.

conjunction fallacy

When people mistakenly believe that the combination of two events is more likely than either event alone.

availability heuristic

Judging the frequency or likelihood of an event based on how easily examples come to mind.

recognition heuristic

If one option is recognized and the other is not, the recognized option is assumed to be more frequent or correct.

anchoring and adjustment heuristic

Starting with an initial estimate (anchor) and making adjustments that are often insufficient.

anchoring effect

Overreliance on the first piece of information (the anchor) when making decisions.

anchor

An initial value or reference point that influences subsequent estimates or decisions.

confidence interval

A range of values within which a person expects a number to fall, based on their judgment.

ecological rationality

The idea that heuristics can be highly effective in real-world environments, even if they’re not logically perfect.

default heuristic

The tendency to go with a pre-set or default option when making a choice.

framing effect

Decisions are influenced by the way information is presented, such as gains vs. losses.

prospect theory

A theory that describes how people make choices involving risk, often valuing losses more heavily than gains.

overconfidence

The tendency to be more confident in one's judgments or abilities than is justified by facts.

planning fallacy

Underestimating the time or resources needed to complete a future task, despite past evidence.

my‐side bias

The tendency to evaluate arguments in a way that favors one's own position or beliefs.

hindsight

The understanding of a situation or event only after it has happened.

hindsight bias

The tendency to believe, after an event has occurred, that one would have predicted or expected it all along.

maximizers

Decision makers who try to make the optimal choice by considering all possible options.

maximizing decision‐making style

A style characterized by exhaustive search for the best possible outcome, often leading to regret or dissatisfaction.

satisficers

Decision makers who look for a choice that is "good enough" rather than perfect.

satisficing decision‐making style

A style that involves choosing the first acceptable option, rather than seeking the best possible one.