Nucleotides and Nucleic Acids Lecture Notes

This set of flashcards covers key concepts related to nucleotides and nucleic acids, their structures, functions, and implications in biological systems.

Nucleotide

A building block of nucleic acids, consisting of a sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base.

Nucleoside

A nitrogenous base bound to a sugar.

Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)

A nucleic acid that carries genetic information, consisting of a sugar-phosphate backbone and nitrogenous bases.

Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)

A nucleic acid involved in protein synthesis, consisting of a sugar-phosphate backbone and nitrogenous bases.

Central Dogma

The flow of genetic information from DNA to RNA to proteins.

Purines

Nitrogenous bases including adenine and guanine, which have a two-ring structure.

Pyrimidines

Nitrogenous bases including cytosine, thymine (DNA), and uracil (RNA), which have a single-ring structure.

Phosphate Group

A component of nucleic acids that is acidic and contributes to the sugar-phosphate backbone.

Amino Acids

The building blocks of proteins, encoded by groups of three bases in DNA.

Transcription

The process of converting DNA into RNA.

Replication

The process of copying DNA to generate two identical strands.

Complementary Strands

Nucleic acid strands that have sequences that match each other (e.g., A-T and G-C pairing in DNA).

Polymerase

An enzyme that synthesizes nucleic acids by adding nucleotides to a growing chain.

Gene Expression

The process of transforming DNA information into functional molecules.

Sugar-phosphate Backbone

The structural framework of nucleic acids formed by alternating sugar and phosphate groups.

Double Helix

The shape of DNA, consisting of two strands wound around each other.

Hydrogen Bonds

Weak bonds that stabilize the double helix structure of DNA between complementary bases.

Van der Waals Interactions

Weak attractions between nucleobases that help stabilize the DNA structure.

Nucleic Acid Structure

Complex structures formed by nucleotide monomers including DNA and RNA.

Introns and Exons

Introns are non-coding regions, and exons are coding sequences in eukaryotic genes.

Cloning

The process of making identical copies of biological material.

Genetic Mutation

A change in the DNA sequence that can result in varying traits.

Z-DNA

A left-handed form of DNA characterized by its zigzag shape.

A-DNA

A right-handed form of DNA that is shorter and wider than B-DNA.

B-DNA

The standard form of DNA in cells, adopting a right-handed helical structure.

DNA Polymerase

The enzyme responsible for DNA replication.

NTP (Nucleoside Triphosphate)

A molecule that provides energy for the polymerization of nucleotides.

Cisplatin

An antitumor drug that forms cross-links in DNA, disrupting replication.

Stem-Loop Structure

A common motif in RNA where complementary sequences form a double helix within the same strand.

tRNA

Transfer RNA that carries amino acids to ribosomes for protein synthesis.

rRNA

Ribosomal RNA that is a component of ribosomes, facilitating protein synthesis.

Hydrophobic Interactions

Forces that drive nitrogenous bases away from water, stabilizing the double helix.

Clinical Correlation

The relationship between the structure of DNA and its interactions with proteins involved in DNA repair.

Antiparallel Strands

Refers to the orientation of the two strands of DNA running in opposite directions.

Grooves in DNA

Major and minor grooves where protein interactions occur with DNA.

Base Pairing Rules

The specific pairing of purines and pyrimidines (e.g., A pairs with T, and G pairs with C).

DNA Structural Flexibility

The ability of DNA to exist in various forms and adapt to different conditions.

Genome Dynamics

The various changes and adaptations in the DNA of an organism due to external and internal factors.

PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction)

A laboratory technique used to amplify DNA sequences.

DNA Repair Mechanisms

Processes that identify and correct damage to DNA.

Epigenetics

The study of changes in organisms caused by modification of gene expression rather than alteration of the genetic code.

Transcription Factors

Proteins that regulate the transcription of specific genes.

Promoter Region

A region of DNA where transcription begins.

Operon

A group of genes that are regulated together.

Histones

Proteins around which DNA is wound to form chromatin.

Chromatin

A complex of DNA and protein found in eukaryotic cells.

Karyotype

The number and visual appearance of the chromosomes in the cell nuclei of an organism.

Nucleotide Sequence

The order of nucleotides in a DNA or RNA molecule.

RNA Interference (RNAi)

A biological process in which RNA molecules inhibit gene expression or translation.

Small RNAs

Short RNA molecules involved in gene regulation.

Thermal Stability

Refers to how stable a molecule, such as DNA, is at high temperatures.

Electrophoresis

A laboratory technique used to separate nucleic acids based on size.

Nuclear Envelope

A double membrane that surrounds the nucleus in eukaryotic cells.

Translational Machinery

The cellular structures that carry out the translation of mRNA into proteins.

Nucleotide Pools

The concentrations of nucleotides available for nucleic acid synthesis in the cell.

Gene Regulation

Mechanisms that increase or decrease the production of specific gene products.

Genetic Engineering

The direct manipulation of an organism's DNA using biotechnology.

Antisense RNA

RNA molecules that are complementary to a specific mRNA and inhibit its expression.

Splicing

The process of removing introns from pre-mRNA and connecting exons together.

Methylation

The addition of a methyl group to DNA that can affect gene expression.

Genetic Drift

Random changes in allele frequency in a population.

Natural Selection

The process in which organisms better adapted to their environment tend to survive and produce more offspring.

Evolutionary Biology

The branch of biology that deals with the processes of change in organisms over time.

Bioinformatics

The application of computer technology to the management of biological information.

Nuclear Acid Base Composition

The relative amounts of the different nitrogenous bases in DNA.

Antisense Oligonucleotides

Short, synthetic strands of nucleic acids designed to bind mRNA and inhibit gene expression.

Chromosomal Aberrations

Changes in chromosome structure or number that can cause genetic disorders.

Cell Differentiation

The process by which a less specialized cell becomes a more specialized cell type.

Cell Cycle

The series of events that take place in a cell leading to its division and duplication.

Apoptosis

Programmed cell death that is a controlled part of an organism's growth or response to stress.

Cell Signaling Pathways

Complex networks of interactions that govern cellular responses to external signals.

Autophagy

The process by which cells degrade and recycle cellular components.

Proteomics

The large-scale study of proteins, particularly their structures and functions.

Transcription Elongation

The stage of transcription when RNA polymerase synthesizes RNA strands.

Nuclear Receptor

A class of proteins that mediate the effects of steroid hormones and fat-soluble vitamins.

Non-Coding RNAs

RNA molecules that are not translated into proteins but have regulatory functions.

Chromatin Remodeling

The dynamic modification of the chromatin architecture to enable access to DNA.

Histone Modifications

Chemical changes to histone proteins that can influence gene expression.

RNA Processing

The modification of RNA from its initial form into its mature form.

Metabolism

The sum of all chemical reactions that occur within a cell.

Microbial Genomics

The study of the genomes of microorganisms.

Biotechnology

The use of living systems and organisms to develop or make products.

Enzyme Activity

The measure of the ability of an enzyme to catalyze a specific reaction.

Signal Transduction Pathways

The processes by which a cell responds to external signals.

Gene Therapy

A technique that modifies a person's genes to treat or cure disease.

Biological Rhythms

Oscillations in biological processes that occur in a time-dependent manner.

Phylogenetics

The study of evolutionary relationships among biological entities.

Allele Frequency

How often a form of a gene appears in a gene pool.

Canadian Experiment

A research project related to DNA technology and its implications.

Nucleic Acid Amplification

Methods used to replicate a specific nucleic acid sequence.

Cellular Respiration

The process by which cells convert glucose and oxygen into energy.

Genetic Localization

Identifying the location of a gene on a chromosome.

Evolutionary Genetics

The study of how genetic variation leads to evolutionary changes.

Cytogenetics

The branch of genetics that studies chromosomes.

Pathogen Genomics

The study of the genomes of pathogens.

Genomic Sequencing

The process of determining the complete DNA sequence of an organism's genome.

Sequencing Technologies

Methods used to determine the order of nucleotides in DNA.

Single-Nucleotide Polymorphism (SNP)

A variation in a single nucleotide that occurs at a specific position in the genome.

Transcriptomics

The study of the complete set of RNA transcripts produced in a cell.

MLPA (Multiplex Ligation-dependent Probe Amplification)

A technique used to detect and quantify specific DNA sequences.