ap bio final

Polarity

Molecules having uneven distribution of charges.

Hydrogen Bond

Weak attraction between a slightly positive hydrogen atom and a slightly negative atom.

Cohesion

Attraction between molecules of the same substance.

Adhesion

Attraction between molecules of different substances.

Capillary Action

The combined force of cohesion and adhesion that allows water to go against gravity.

Hypotonic

Having a lower concentration of solute than another solution (less stuff, more water).

Hypertonic

Having a higher concentration of solute than another solution (more stuff, less water).

Lipids (CHO)

Non-polar fatty acid monomers used for energy storage, cell communication, and cell support.

Nucleic Acids (CHONP)

DNA and RNA, with 5 bases (A, T, C, G, U).

Carbohydrates (CHO)

Used as a fuel for energy production and powering cellular processes.

Proteins (CHON)

Amino acid group essential for structure, function, and regulation.

Prokaryotic Cell

Cell that does not have a nucleus or other membrane-bound organelles, photosynthesizing on the membrane.

Eukaryotic Cell

A cell with distinct, membrane-bounded organelles, has a nucleus, and can compartmentalize.

Phospholipids

Molecules with a hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tail.

Water Potential

Pressure potential (usually 0) + solute potential.

Solute Potential

Calculated using the formula -iCRT.

Electrochemical Gradient

The combined effect of chemical concentration gradient and electrical gradient that drives the movement of ions across a membrane.

Enzymes

Proteins that speed up chemical reactions.

Enzyme-Substrate Complex

The stage where the enzyme binds to its substrate.

Nucleus

The control center of the cell.

Ribosomes

Sites of protein synthesis.

Smooth ER

Synthesis of lipids and is the portion of the ER with no ribosomes.

Active Transport

Energy-requiring process that moves material across a cell membrane against a concentration difference.

Facilitated Diffusion

Process of diffusion in which molecules pass across the membrane through cell membrane channels.

Passive Transport

Movement of substances across a cell membrane without the use of energy by the cell.

Rough ER

ER that is dotted with ribosomes responsible for producing proteins.

Golgi Apparatus/Complex

Packages and sends proteins; assists in the transport but is not the actual transport network.

Mitochondria

Powerhouse of the cell, organelle that is the site of ATP (energy) production.

Lysosomes

Organelles that break down old organelles and debris using digestive enzymes and perform apoptosis.

Vacuoles

Cell organelles that store materials such as water, salts, proteins, and carbohydrates.

Peroxisomes

Organelles that produce hydrogen peroxide and detoxify harmful substances.

Cytoskeleton

A network of fibers that supports the cell structure, helps it maintain shape, and aids in movement.

Endocytosis

Process by which a cell takes material into the cell by infolding the cell membrane.

Entropy

A measure of disorder or randomness in the universe.

Enzyme Specificity

Concept that each enzyme catalyzes only one kind of reaction.

Competitive Inhibition

Substance that resembles the normal substrate competes with the substrate for the active site.

Non-Competitive Inhibition

Inhibitor binds to a different place on enzyme and changes the shape of the enzyme, preventing substrate from binding.

Anaerobic Cells

Cells that do not need oxygen to survive.

Heterotrophs

Organisms that obtain organic food molecules by eating other organisms or their by-products.

Glycolysis

The breakdown of glucose by enzymes, releasing 2 ATP, 2 pyruvate, and 2 NADH.

Fermentation

A process that turns pyruvate into lactic acid/ethanol without the use of oxygen.

Krebs Cycle

Second stage of cellular respiration, breaking down Acetyl-CoA into carbon dioxide, 2 ATP, 2 FADH2, and 6 NADH.

Electron Transport Chain

Sequence of electron carrier molecules that shuttle electrons to release energy used to make ATP.

NADH

The reduced form of NAD+; an electron-carrying molecule that functions in cellular respiration.

FADH2

Electron carrier produced during the Krebs cycle.

Matrix

Innermost compartment of the mitochondrion, where the Krebs cycle occurs.

Cristae

Folds of the inner mitochondrial membrane, where the electron transport chain is located.

ATP Synthase

Large protein that uses energy from H+ ions to bind ADP and a phosphate group together to produce ATP.

Chlorophyll

Green pigment in plants that absorbs light energy for photosynthesis.

Chloroplast

Organelle in plant and algae cells where photosynthesis occurs.

Thylakoids

Flattened membrane sacs inside the chloroplast, used to convert light energy to chemical energy.

Granum

Stack of thylakoids in chloroplasts.

Lumen

The hollow inside of the thylakoid, facilitating electron transportation.

Stroma

Fluid in chloroplast surrounding the thylakoid membrane; involved in the synthesis of organic molecules.

Calvin Cycle

Reactions of photosynthesis using energy from ATP and NADPH to build high-energy compounds such as sugars.

Photosystem 1

Light reaction in photosynthesis where ATP and NADPH are formed (comes second).

Photosystem 2

Light reaction in photosynthesis where ATP and NADPH are formed (comes first).

Negative Feedback Loop

A signal causes a response that decreases the signal.

Positive Feedback Loop

A signal causes a response that increases the signal.

Mitosis

Cell division in which the nucleus divides into nuclei containing the same number of chromosomes.

Cytokinesis

Division of the cytoplasm during cell division.

Chromatid

One of two identical 'sister' parts of a duplicated chromosome.

Centromere

Area where the chromatids of a chromosome are attached.

G1 Phase

Cell growth stage in mitosis.

S Phase

Phase in which DNA replication occurs.

G2 Phase

Stage where the cell prepares to divide.

G0 Phase

A nondividing state occupied by cells that have left the cell cycle, sometimes reversibly.

Prophase

Phase where chromosomes become visible, nuclear envelope dissolves, and spindle forms.

Metaphase

Phase where chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell.

Anaphase

Phase in mitosis where chromosomes separate and move to opposite ends of the cell.

Telophase

Phase where the cytoplasm separates and two new cells form, each with the same number of chromosomes.

Interphase

Period of the cell cycle between cell divisions.

Tumor Suppressor Genes

Genes that code for proteins that stop cell division and promote apoptosis.

Proto-Oncogenes

Genes that code for proteins stimulating normal cell growth and division.

Meiosis

Cell division that produces gametes in sexually reproducing organisms, resulting in 4 haploid daughter cells.

Law of Segregation

The principle that homologous chromosomes separate in meiosis so that each gamete receives one chromosome from each pair.

Law of Independent Assortment

The principle that genes separate independently of one another in meiosis.

Complete Dominance

A relationship where one allele is completely dominant over another.

Incomplete Dominance

A situation where one allele is not completely dominant, resulting in a mix (e.g., gray from black and white alleles).

Codominant

A condition in which both alleles in a heterozygote are fully expressed (e.g., spots or stripes).

Chi-Squared

A statistical test calculated as (observed - expected)²/expected.

Sex-Linked Genes

Genes located on the sex chromosomes, usually the X chromosome.