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Polarity
Molecules having uneven distribution of charges.
Hydrogen Bond
Weak attraction between a slightly positive hydrogen atom and a slightly negative atom.
Cohesion
Attraction between molecules of the same substance.
Adhesion
Attraction between molecules of different substances.
Capillary Action
The combined force of cohesion and adhesion that allows water to go against gravity.
Hypotonic
Having a lower concentration of solute than another solution (less stuff, more water).
Hypertonic
Having a higher concentration of solute than another solution (more stuff, less water).
Lipids (CHO)
Non-polar fatty acid monomers used for energy storage, cell communication, and cell support.
Nucleic Acids (CHONP)
DNA and RNA, with 5 bases (A, T, C, G, U).
Carbohydrates (CHO)
Used as a fuel for energy production and powering cellular processes.
Proteins (CHON)
Amino acid group essential for structure, function, and regulation.
Prokaryotic Cell
Cell that does not have a nucleus or other membrane-bound organelles, photosynthesizing on the membrane.
Eukaryotic Cell
A cell with distinct, membrane-bounded organelles, has a nucleus, and can compartmentalize.
Phospholipids
Molecules with a hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tail.
Water Potential
Pressure potential (usually 0) + solute potential.
Solute Potential
Calculated using the formula -iCRT.
Electrochemical Gradient
The combined effect of chemical concentration gradient and electrical gradient that drives the movement of ions across a membrane.
Enzymes
Proteins that speed up chemical reactions.
Enzyme-Substrate Complex
The stage where the enzyme binds to its substrate.
Nucleus
The control center of the cell.
Ribosomes
Sites of protein synthesis.
Smooth ER
Synthesis of lipids and is the portion of the ER with no ribosomes.
Active Transport
Energy-requiring process that moves material across a cell membrane against a concentration difference.
Facilitated Diffusion
Process of diffusion in which molecules pass across the membrane through cell membrane channels.
Passive Transport
Movement of substances across a cell membrane without the use of energy by the cell.
Rough ER
ER that is dotted with ribosomes responsible for producing proteins.
Golgi Apparatus/Complex
Packages and sends proteins; assists in the transport but is not the actual transport network.
Mitochondria
Powerhouse of the cell, organelle that is the site of ATP (energy) production.
Lysosomes
Organelles that break down old organelles and debris using digestive enzymes and perform apoptosis.
Vacuoles
Cell organelles that store materials such as water, salts, proteins, and carbohydrates.
Peroxisomes
Organelles that produce hydrogen peroxide and detoxify harmful substances.
Cytoskeleton
A network of fibers that supports the cell structure, helps it maintain shape, and aids in movement.
Endocytosis
Process by which a cell takes material into the cell by infolding the cell membrane.
Entropy
A measure of disorder or randomness in the universe.
Enzyme Specificity
Concept that each enzyme catalyzes only one kind of reaction.
Competitive Inhibition
Substance that resembles the normal substrate competes with the substrate for the active site.
Non-Competitive Inhibition
Inhibitor binds to a different place on enzyme and changes the shape of the enzyme, preventing substrate from binding.
Anaerobic Cells
Cells that do not need oxygen to survive.
Heterotrophs
Organisms that obtain organic food molecules by eating other organisms or their by-products.
Glycolysis
The breakdown of glucose by enzymes, releasing 2 ATP, 2 pyruvate, and 2 NADH.
Fermentation
A process that turns pyruvate into lactic acid/ethanol without the use of oxygen.
Krebs Cycle
Second stage of cellular respiration, breaking down Acetyl-CoA into carbon dioxide, 2 ATP, 2 FADH2, and 6 NADH.
Electron Transport Chain
Sequence of electron carrier molecules that shuttle electrons to release energy used to make ATP.
NADH
The reduced form of NAD+; an electron-carrying molecule that functions in cellular respiration.
FADH2
Electron carrier produced during the Krebs cycle.
Matrix
Innermost compartment of the mitochondrion, where the Krebs cycle occurs.
Cristae
Folds of the inner mitochondrial membrane, where the electron transport chain is located.
ATP Synthase
Large protein that uses energy from H+ ions to bind ADP and a phosphate group together to produce ATP.
Chlorophyll
Green pigment in plants that absorbs light energy for photosynthesis.
Chloroplast
Organelle in plant and algae cells where photosynthesis occurs.
Thylakoids
Flattened membrane sacs inside the chloroplast, used to convert light energy to chemical energy.
Granum
Stack of thylakoids in chloroplasts.
Lumen
The hollow inside of the thylakoid, facilitating electron transportation.
Stroma
Fluid in chloroplast surrounding the thylakoid membrane; involved in the synthesis of organic molecules.
Calvin Cycle
Reactions of photosynthesis using energy from ATP and NADPH to build high-energy compounds such as sugars.
Photosystem 1
Light reaction in photosynthesis where ATP and NADPH are formed (comes second).
Photosystem 2
Light reaction in photosynthesis where ATP and NADPH are formed (comes first).
Negative Feedback Loop
A signal causes a response that decreases the signal.
Positive Feedback Loop
A signal causes a response that increases the signal.
Mitosis
Cell division in which the nucleus divides into nuclei containing the same number of chromosomes.
Cytokinesis
Division of the cytoplasm during cell division.
Chromatid
One of two identical 'sister' parts of a duplicated chromosome.
Centromere
Area where the chromatids of a chromosome are attached.
G1 Phase
Cell growth stage in mitosis.
S Phase
Phase in which DNA replication occurs.
G2 Phase
Stage where the cell prepares to divide.
G0 Phase
A nondividing state occupied by cells that have left the cell cycle, sometimes reversibly.
Prophase
Phase where chromosomes become visible, nuclear envelope dissolves, and spindle forms.
Metaphase
Phase where chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell.
Anaphase
Phase in mitosis where chromosomes separate and move to opposite ends of the cell.
Telophase
Phase where the cytoplasm separates and two new cells form, each with the same number of chromosomes.
Interphase
Period of the cell cycle between cell divisions.
Tumor Suppressor Genes
Genes that code for proteins that stop cell division and promote apoptosis.
Proto-Oncogenes
Genes that code for proteins stimulating normal cell growth and division.
Meiosis
Cell division that produces gametes in sexually reproducing organisms, resulting in 4 haploid daughter cells.
Law of Segregation
The principle that homologous chromosomes separate in meiosis so that each gamete receives one chromosome from each pair.
Law of Independent Assortment
The principle that genes separate independently of one another in meiosis.
Complete Dominance
A relationship where one allele is completely dominant over another.
Incomplete Dominance
A situation where one allele is not completely dominant, resulting in a mix (e.g., gray from black and white alleles).
Codominant
A condition in which both alleles in a heterozygote are fully expressed (e.g., spots or stripes).
Chi-Squared
A statistical test calculated as (observed - expected)²/expected.
Sex-Linked Genes
Genes located on the sex chromosomes, usually the X chromosome.
