Industrial/Organizational Psychology

Hawthorne Studies

A series of studies during the 1920s and 1930s that provided new insights into individual and group behavior

Human Relations Approach

Todays predominant viewpoint which arose under the impact of the Hawthorne studies in the 20's and 30's.

Hawthorne effect

the tendency for people to behave differently when they know they are being observed

Ouchi's Theory Z

William Ouchi's theory is based on the participative management style of the Japanese. This theory states that workers are motivated by a sense of commitment, opportunity, and advancement.

Scientific Management

studying workers to find the most efficient ways of doing things and then teaching people those techniques. People are extensions of the machines (ignores individual needs, ability or interests) Workers are considered lazy/dishonest/low intelligence

Fredrick Taylor

Discovered the scientific management system- a way of organizing people in the most efficient manner.

Theory X

assumes that workers are basically lazy, error-prone, and extrinsically motivated by money and, thus, should be directed from above.

Theory Y

assumes that, given challenge and freedom, workers are motivated to achieve self-esteem and to demonstrate their competence and creativity.

Trait Theory of Leadership

assumes that there is a universal set of traits that can distinguish good leaders from poor leaders. Examples include: authoritarian, democratic, and laissez faire leaders.

Situational theory

the theory of leadership asserting that leadership depends on the situation

Includes: Fiedler's LPC Theory, Cognitive Resource Theory, Vroom and Yetton's Normative Model, House's Path-Goal Theory, and Hersey and Blanchard's Situational Leadership Theory.

Fiedler's Contingency Theory (LPC Theory)

based on the premise that a leader's effectiveness is contingent on the extent to which a leader's style fits or matches characteristics of the situation at hand

High LPCs are people oriented while Low LPCs are Task Oriented

Cognitive Resource Theory

A theory of leadership which states that stress unfavorably affects a situation and that intelligence and experience can reduce the influence of stress on the leader

Vroom & Yetton's Normative Model

This provides a "decision tree" to help a leader determine an autocratic, consultative, or consensual decision-making approach

House's Path-Goal Theory of Leadership

The most important aspect in leadership is the follower's expectation that a task can be accomplished and that it will lead to rewards. Four types of leadership styles are: Directive, supportive, achievement oriented, and participative.

Hersey and Blanchard's Situational Leadership

looks at employees' readiness to perform (telling, selling, participating, delegating)

Transactional Leadership

leadership based on an exchange process in which followers are rewarded for good performance and punished for poor performance

Transformational Leadership

leadership that generates awareness and acceptance of a group's purpose and mission and gets employees to see beyond their own needs and self-interests for the good of the group

Reward Power

the ability of a manager to give or withhold tangible and intangible rewards

e.g. offering bonuses for excellent performance

coercive power

The ability of a manager to punish others

e.g. fire an employee for poor performance

legitimate power

the authority that a manager has by virtue of their position in an organization's hierarchy

e.g. power that comes from being in a supervisory position

refferent power

Based on identifying with, admiring, or liking the person in a leadership position

expert power

influence based on special skills or knowledge

rational-economic model

the model of decision making according to which decision makers consider all possible alternatives to problems before selecting the optimal solution

Administrative Approach

the behavioral approach to decision making also referred to as satisfysing style. Used when problems are ambiguous, and the first satisfactory alternative is chosen. Associated with Herbert Simon.

Conflict

can be intrapersonal, interpersonal, intergroup, or interorganziation. Resolution can be lose-lose (compromise), win-lose (competition or authority), or win-win (collaborative/ problem solving).

Negotiation

Can be two-party, group, intergroup, or among constituencies. Distributive negotiation involves parties claiming part of the pie, while Integrative/principled negotiation involves attempting to enlarge the pie. Arbitrations occurs when a judge issues a binding decision after listening to both sides.

Need Theories of Motivation

Include Maslow's, Alderfer's ERG, McClelland's Need for Achievement, Herzberg's two-factor, & Job Characteristics Model

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

(level 1) Physiological Needs, (level 2) Safety and Security, (level 3) Relationships, Love and Affection, (level 4) Self Esteem, (level 5) Self Actualization

Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory

A model that divides motivational forces into satisfiers ("motivators") or upper level needs, and dissatisfiers ("hygiene factors") or lower level needs

job enrichment

aka vertical loading. Involves expanding job and giving workers the authority and control to make meaningful decisions about their work. Results in increased satisfaction and performance, decreased turnover, and decreased absenteeism.

job enlargement

aka horizontal loading. Involves broadening the types of tasks performed in a job. Results in satisfaction and only slightly affects performance

Alderfer's ERG Theory

The theory that three universal needs—for Existence, Relatedness, and Growth—constitute a hierarchy of needs and motivate behavior. Alderfer proposed that needs at more than one level can be motivational at the same time.

McClelland's Acquired Needs Theory

states that three needs - achievement (nACH), affiliation (nAFF), and power (nPower) - are major motives determining people's behavior in the workplace

nACH

need for achievement ( desire to do something better, solve problems and master tasks). Correlated with success of a company. From McClelland's Acquired Needs Theory

nAFF

need for affiliation (establish and maintain friendly relations). From McClelland's Acquired Needs Theory

nPower

need for power (desire to control, influence, and be responsible for others). From McClelland's Acquired Needs Theory

Cognitive Theories of Motivation (3)

General Expectancy Theory; Adam's Equity Theory; Locke's Goal Setting Apporoach

General Expectancy Theory

Aka Vrooms Valence-Instrumentality Theory (VIE). Asserts that people behave in was that are based on their perceived expectancy that certain rewards will follow and that in the workplace employees perform at a level that results in the greatest payoff. Includes three facets: Expectancy, Instrumentality, and Valence

Expectancy

expectancy of success on a task. Step one of General Expectancy Theory

Instrumentatlity

anticipation of rewards Step two of General Expectancy Theory

Valence

value the rewards has for the employee Step two of General Expectancy Theory

Adam's Equity Theory

A theory that states that people will be motivated when they perceive that they are being treated fairly; the idea that employees try to maintain equity between inputs and outputs compared to others in similar positions

Locke's Goal Setting Theory

Specific and difficult goals, with self-generated feedback, lead to higher performance

Reinforcement Theory

theory that positive and negative reinforcers motivate a person to behave in certain ways

job satisfaction

a positive or negative feeling about one's job resulting from an evaluation of its characteristics

Age: JS increases with age

Gender: No clear patterns with JS

Race: whites report more JS -especially among managers

Occupational Level: highers the occupational level the higher the JS

Health: Correlation exists between job DISsatisfaction and physical and mental health

Productivity: weak positive correlation between JS and productivity

Absenteeism/Turnover: JS has a moderate negative correlation with absenteeism/turnover

Pay: There is a postive correlation between pay and JS especially fairness of pay

Turnover

the voluntary and involuntary permanent withdrawal from an organization

Tenure: negative correlation with turnover

Pay and Opportunity for Promotion: negative correlation with turnover

Routine Work: results in increased turnover

Productivity: no relationship with turnover

Absenteeism

the failure to show up for work

Sex: females have higher rates than males

Company Size: smaller companies have less absenteeism

Age: older workers have more unavoidable absences, but fewer avoidable absences. They have decreased turnover.

Human Factors Approach

Approach to designs jobs by taking into account the physical dimensions of the body, studying time and motion to maximize speed and minimize wasted movement. Focusing on "operator-machine system".

Psychological Approach

Approach to design jobs by taking into account efficiency and effectiveness correlated with job satisfaction to allow people to meet self-actualization needs. Includes job enlargement (horizontal loading) and job enrichment (vertical loading).

Organizational Structures

define the various roles of company employees; set limits on employee work behavior; create rules and regulations

Traditional: hierarchical (bureaucracy)

Project: centered on specific products or services (i.e. ED, SCP, PHP) vs. (Physicians, Nurses, Psychologists)

Team: work teams or groups that report to upper level management

Multidimensional: more than one time of structure (i.e. traditional and team)

Participative Organizational Style

1.) Human Relations: people want to participate 2.)Human Resources: people are a valuable resource because they have knowledge and ideas

3.) High Involvement: people can be trusted to develop knowledge and skills in order to make work decisions

Quality of Work Life Programs (QWL)

programs that target changes in organizational style by discussing extrinsic factors (physical work conditions) and intrinsic factors (employee involvement and satisfaction)

Quality Control Circles (QCC)

develop specific ways to improve the finished product and the level of production. Improve quality and quantity.

Organizational Development

a philosophy and collection of planned change interventions designed to improve an organization's long-term health and performance

organizational culture

the set of values, ideas, attitudes, and norms of behavior that is learned and shared among the members of an organization

centralized communication network

communication flows only between individual members and a hub or center point. Best for simple tasks.

decentralized communication network

allows all members to communicate directly with one another. Slower communication, however best for tasks involving problems solving and communication

informal group

A group that is neither formally structured nor organizationally determined; such a group appears in response to the need for social contact.

Title VII of theCivil Rights Act of 1964

The original Equal Employment Opportunity (EEO) act. It states that one cannot discriminate on the basis of sex, ethnicity, and a variety of other factors.

Uniform Guidelines on Employee Selection

Created in 1978 by the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC). Dictate that the use of any test that adversely affects hiring, promotion, or other selection procedures, constitutes discrimination.

The use of tests may be used if they are validated, have utility and no other alternatives are available.

Americans with Disabilities Act

ADA (1990) bans discrimination in employment, transportation, access to public buildings, as well as discrimination in other settings. Requires companies to make reasonable accommodations for disabled individuals.

Qualified individual with a disability

Under ADA- is someone who can perform the essential functions of the employment position with or without reasonable accommodation.

Reasonable Accommodation

Defined as making existing facilities readily accessible to and usable by individuals with disabilities, and includes such things as job restructuring, modified work schedules, adjustment or modification of exams, and acquisition or modification of equipment.

Griggs v. Duke Power Company (1971)

The court ruled that tests that measured broad abilities, in which minority group members passed at much lower rates that whites, were unfair to use to make decisions of hiring and promotion.

adverse impact

Based on 4/5ths rule, which states that the percentage of minorities selected must be at least 4/5ths of the percentage of non-minorities.

Unfairness

Unfairness occurs when minorities and non-minorities score differently on the predictor test yet perform similarly on the criterion.

Example- MCAT exam attempts to predict success in medical school. Minorities routinely score lower on the MCAT vs. non-minorities, but once in medical school minorities perform just as well as non-minorities.

Differential Validity

Occurs when there are significantly different criterion-related validity coefficients for different groups on the same test. Essentially, the test is more valid predicting the performance of one group than for another. Research suggests that the occurrence of this is rare.

Example- if the MCAT had criterion-related validity coefficient of .45 for whites, and .25 for hispanics.

Centralized communication networks

Like a wheel/chain, where one person in the middle who gets all the information. They are best for simple tasks, and result in fairly rapid communication.

Decentralized communication network

Pinwheel, or an all-channel, or a star, where members can communicate with one another. They are best for tasks involving problem solving, and communication. However, they result in slower communication.

Greatest satisfaction is with less centralized networks.

Informal groups

Not officially designated by the organization to serve a specific purpose. Workers come together informally to establish and promote a set of norms and values.

Social loafing

Also known as the Ringelmann effect, where people don't work as hard in a group as they do on their own.

Group cohesiveness

Informal groups tend to attract and retain people with similar personality characteristics, and take on a consistent affective tone. The greater the cohesiveness, the greater the groups power over its members and the greater the pressure is to conform.

Factors that impact group cohesion

Factors that influence cohesiveness include: group size (larger are less cohesive), diversity (more diverse are less cohesive), team rewards (increase cohesiveness), outside pressures and threats (increase cohesiveness), difficulty to join the group (increase cohesiveness) and frequent interactions (increase cohesiveness).

Being a part of a group can increase satisfaction, decrease turnover, absenteeism and job strain.

Stages of group development

Forming, storming (including conflicts over leadership), norming (initial integration), performing (total integration), and adjourning.

Additive tasks

One in which the group members' separate performances are added to produce a combined effect.

Example- A group of scientists and engineers combine their talents to construct a space shuttle.

Disjunctive Tasks

One in which the outcome is affected by the performance of the most effective group member.

Example- A group meets to decide how to improve the company's marketing strategy, and one person comes up with an outstanding idea.

Conjunctive tasks

One in which the group's accomplishment is limited by the performance of the least effective member.

Example- One member of a quality control team sleeps during his shift, resulting in significant product errors

Group effectiveness

Groups make better decisions than individuals when the problem has multiple parts that are susceptible to division of labor. Heterogeneous groups make better decisions than homogeneous groups.

Ideal group size is 5-7, in situations where deliberation is required (juries) an even number is more effective.

Brainstorming

One technique for improving group decision making. It's superior to an open group discussion, when the goals involve creative thinking.

Research shows that individuals that brainstorm alone they come up with better solutions than when they brainstorm in a group.

Risky shift

Tendency for people in groups to make riskier decisions than they would if they were deciding as an individual.

Response polarization

Group polarization. The tendency for people in groups to become more extreme in their views.

Groupthink

Occurs in highly cohesive groups, where group members seek concurrence, consensus and unanimity more than they seek the best possible alternative. Members tend to think alike and lose their critical evaluative capacities due to social pressure to conform.

Physical working conditions

Include: Temperature and humidity, Illumination, noise, color, and music.

Compressed work weeks

four ten-hour days, are utilized in about 20% of the workforce. Results in decreased anxiety, decreased turnover, and increased satisfaction. Drawbacks include fatigue and possible customer complaints due to unavailable personnel.

Flextime

Utilized by about 40% of the workforce. Mixed findings, some suggest that it increases morale and productivity and decreases lateness, absenteeism, and turnover.

Rest breaks

Breaks increase morale and productivity, and they reduce fatigue and boredom. Maximum effect if taken during the fourth and eighth hour of work.

Shift work

Most workers prefer day work. There is a tendency for increased error and decreased output on the night shift. Afternoon and night shifts are frequently more stressful than day shifts. Night shifts are correlated with more health problems. Rotating shifts are the most detrimental to health.

artistic

Holland type that prefers ambiguous and unsystematic activities that allow creative expression

assessment centers

situational testing for 6-12 candidates, several days with exercises, tests, simulations, etc

attribution errors

supervisors think poor performance is the person's fault when it's someone they dislike, but good performance is a liked person, even when it is external factors

BARS (behaviorally anchored rating scales)

rating an employee on job aspects that have been linked to performance: not particularly cost-efficient and usually not realistic

behavioral checklist

a rater grabs all the adjectives/descriptors that apply to the employee

biographical information

the gathering of info when people are applying to a job

biographical inventory

collecting info from an applicant in great detail, correlating them with good/bad work behaviors, and validating against a specific criterion (like successful work perf. after) very costly cuz you have to tailor them to the specific job

BOS (behavioral observation scale)

rating how often a person engages in behaviors (e.g. how often an employee finishes tasks on time)

career development theories

2 categories of theories: structural and developmental

career maturity

individual's capacity to effectively master the tasks of a given stage in prep for moving on to the next stage

central tendency set

when a rater tends to rate everyone as about average

cognitive ability tests

typing tests, personnel tests that predict job success (can discriminate)

compensatory

when high scores on one domain can help an overall score even when there are low scores in another