chap 16 pt. 1

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immunology

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90 Terms

1

immunology

the scientific study of the immune system and immune responses

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primary functions of the immune system

differentiate between “self” and “non-self” and destroy that which is “non-self”

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Cells invovled in immune responses originate in bone marrow

  • 3 lines of lymphocytes derived from lymphoid stem cells of bone marrow

  • 2 categories of T cells

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3 lymphocyte types

B lymphocytes (b cells)

T lymphocytes (T cells)

Natural Killer cells (NK cells)

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2 categories of T cells

helper T cells and Cytotoxic cells

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2 major arms of the immune system

humoral immunity and cell mediated immunity

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humoral immunity

special glycoproteins called antibodies (ab’s) are produced by B cells to destroy specific microbes

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Cell mediated immunity

involves a variety of cell types (t cells, NK cells), with Ab’s only playing a minor role if any

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Acquired immunity

immunity that results from the active production or receipt of antibodies during ones lifetime

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Active acquired immunity

  • antibodies are produced within the person

  • usually provides long-lasting protection

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passive acquired immunity

  • antibodies are received that were produced by another person or persons or by an animal

  • usually provides only temporary protection

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2 types of active acquired immunity

natural active acquired immunity - occurs naturally

artificial active acquired immunity - artificially induced

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a vaccine

material that can artificially induce immunity to an infectious disease, usually following injection or ingestion of a vaccine

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What are most vaccines made from?

living or dead pathogens or the toxins they produce

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How do vaccines work

by teaching your immune system to recognize and remember bacteria or viruses

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Antigens

the memory of the foreign ingredients your body makes when you get a vaccine

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How do vaccines help for the future

if in the future you are exposed to the actual disease, your immune system can then fight and kill the bacteria or viruses much more quickly

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How are vaccines made

by manipulating germs or parts of germs

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How do scientists decide which vaccine type will be the best

its based on the disease-causing agent and the natural behavior/course of the disease

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Protective antibodies

What vaccines stimulate the recipients immune system to produce

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Types of available vaccines

  1. attenuated vaccines (weak, live)

  2. inactivated vaccines (killed)

  3. subunit vaccines (portion)

  4. conjugate vaccines (polytech portion and protein)

  5. toxoid vaccines (inactivated toxins)

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Note on conjugate vaccines

  • similar to subunit, conjugate vax uses only portions of germ

  • many bacteria molecules are coated by a sugar called polysaccharide

  • coating disguises germ

  • immune system not to recognize it

  • therefore scientists attach the polysaccharide to a stronger protein

  • immune system responds to the protein, it also responses to the polysaccharide

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Examples of conjugate vaccines

Haemophilus influenza conjugate vaccine (Hib) and Pneumoccocal conjugate vaccine (prevnar)

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History of Polio

in early 20th century, polio was one of most feared diseases —> paralyzing thousands of children every year

  • soon after introduction of effective vaccines polio was brought under control and practically eliminated as a public health problem

  • Polio has been eliminated from all but four countries which remain endemic. in 2009 less than 2k cases were reported

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IPV - Inactivated Polio Vaccine

developed in 1955 by Dr Jonas Salk

“Salk vaccine”

  • consists of inactivated (killed) poliovirus strains of all three poliovirus types

  • given by intramuscular injection and needs to be administered by a trained health worker

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IPV Advantage

  • as IPV is not a live vaccine, it carries no risk of vaccine associated polio paralysis

  • IPV triggers and excellent protective immune response

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IPV disadvantage

  • IPV induces very low levels of immunity in the intestine —> when a person immunized with IPV is infected with wild poliovirus, the virus can still multiply inside the intestines and be shed in the faeces

  • IPV is over five times more expensive than oral polio vaccine

  • administering the vaccine requires trained health workers and sterile injection equipment and procedures

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IPV Safety?

one of the safest vaccines in use

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Efficacy of IPV

highly effective in preventing paralytic disease caused by all three types of poliovirus

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Recommended use of IPV

most industrialized polio free countries are using IPV as the vaccine of choice. This is because the risk of paralytic polio associated with routine use of OPV is greater than the risk of imported wild virus. However as IPV does not stop transmission of the virus, oral polio vaccine is used wherever a polio outbreak needs to be contained, even in countries which rely on IPV for their routine immunization programme (polio outbreaks in the Netherlands 1992)

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OPV - Oral Polio Vaccine

  • developed in 1961 by Albert Sabin

  • called trivalent oral polio vaccine or sabin vaccine

  • simple to administer, few drops given multiple times can protect a child for life

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OPV made up of?

a mixture of live, attenuated (weakened) poliovirus strains of all three poliovirus types

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What does OPV produce?

Abs in the blood to all three types of poliovirus. in the event of infection, these Abs protect against paralysis by preventing the spread of wild poliovirus to the nervous system

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Advantages of OPV

  • administered orally (easy)

    • not need health workers/trained

  • inexpensive

  • safe and effective with long-lasting immunity

  • can result in passive immunization of people who have not been directly vaccinated

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Disadvantage of OPV

  • since live attenuated —> causes paralysis

  • the vaccine-associated paralytic polio (VAPP) may be triggered by immune deficiency

  • very rarely the virus in the vaccine may genetically change and start to circulate among a population → also known as a circulating vaccine-derived polioviruses (cVDPV)

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How is passive acquired immunity produced/transferred? How long does protection last?

antibodies produced in one person are transferred to another person to protect the latter from infection

  • provides temporary protection

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Two types of passive acquired immunity

natural and artificial

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Natural passive acquired immunity

  • Small antibodies

  • IgG

  • present in mothers blood cross the placenta to reach the fetus

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passive acquired immunity definition

  • Antibodies from an immune person are transferred to a susceptible person

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Example of artificial passive acquired immunity

Hepatitis B immune globulin

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Antigens

foreign organic substances that are large enough to stimulate the production of antibodies

  • antigenic

  • antigenic determinants

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antigenic

substances capable of stimulating anitbodies

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antigenic determinants

a bacterial cell has many molecules ___ on its surface that are capable of stimulating the production of antibodies

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What are antibodies produced by?

  • proteins produced by lymphocytes in response to the presence of an antigen

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Immunoglobulins

globular glycoproteins in the blood that participate in immune reactions

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The amount and type of antibodies produced by a given antigenic stimulation depend on

  1. the nature of the antigen

  2. the site of antigenic stimulus

  3. the amount of antigen, and the number of times the person is exposed to the antigen

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The majority of antigens

T-dependent Antigens because T cells are required in their processing —> the processing of T-independent antigens requires only B cells)

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5 different types of antibodies

IgG

IgA

IgM

IgE

IgD

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What do Plasma B cells do

produce and secrete antibodies

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What does the processing of either T-dependent of T-independent antigens result in?

Results in B cells developing into plasma cells, which are capable of secreting antibodies

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Primary response

the initial immune response to an antigen

  • it takes 10-14 days for antibodies to be produced

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Secondary response

the increased production of antibodies following the second exposure to a particular antigen

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Where do immune responses occur?

immune responses to antigens in blood are usually initiated in the spleen

—> Responses to microbes and other antigens in tissues are generated in lymph nodes located near the infected area

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What are antibodies

a class of glycoprotein called immunoglobulins

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Antibodies and immunoglobulins saying

all antibodies are immunoglobulins but not all immunoglobulins are antibodies

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hybridomas

  • long-lived, antibody producing cells

  • produced by combining a single plasma cell and a rapidly dividing tumor cell

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monoclonal antibodies

hybridomas are capable of producing large amounts of specific antibodies

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immunodiagnostic procedures

monoclonal antibodies are used in these. (i.g. immunologic procedures used in laboratories to diagnose disease)

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Monoclonal antibodies are possible use in what?

fighting diseases, killing tumor cells, boosting the immune system, and preventing organ rejection

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What happens when the antibody combines with an antigen

antigen-antibody complex (immune complex) is formed

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Antigen antibody complexes do what

activating the complement cascade —> causing the following effects

  • activation of leukocytes

  • lysis of bacterial cells

  • increased phagocytosis as a result of opsonization

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Cell mediated immunity

  • antibodies are unable to enter cells

  • a complex system of cell interactions and cellular secretions

    • an arm of the immune system capable of controlling chronic infectinos by intracellular pathogens (certain bacteria, protozoa, fungi, and viruses(

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Examples of cells that participate in CMI

macrophages, ThCells, TcCells, NK cells, and granylocytes

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Are NK cells antigen specific or no

they are not antigen specific

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NK cells

in a subpopulation of lymphocytes called large granular lymphocytes

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CMI resemble what

lymphocytes but lack typical T or B cell surface markers

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CMI does not increase in rate in reponse to what?

antigen and appear not to be involved in antigen-specific recognition

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What do NK cells kill?

target cells, including foreign cells, host cells infected with viruses or bacteria, and tumor cells

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Hypersensitivity

an overly sensitive immune system; tissue damage occurs

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Different types of hypersensitivity reactions

immediate type and delayed type

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immediate type (hypersensitivity)

occurs from within a few minutes to 24 hours after contact with a particular antigen; 3 types: type I, II, and III hypersensitivity reactions

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delayed type

usually takes more than 24 hours to manifest themselves (poison ivy)

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Anaphylactic reactions

Type I hypersensitivity reactions are also known as

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Type I hypersensitivity reactions

classic allergic responses such as hay fever symptoms, asthma, gives and gastrointestinal symptoms that result from food allergies

  • allergic responses to insect stings and drugs

  • anaphylactic shock

  • 15 - 30 min

  • may be localized or systemic

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localized reaction involve what kind of degranulation?

mass cell degranulation; they result in allergic reactions, such as hay fever symptoms, asthma, and food allergies

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system reactions involve what kind of degranulation?

basophil degranulation; they occur throughout the body, can lead to anaphylactic shock, and can be life-threatening (drugs and insect venom)

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How can anaphylactic reactions be prevented?

by avoiding known allergens (is often difficult to do)

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Skin tests (scratch tests)

used to i.d. offending allergens in pateints

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What does a positive scratch test indicate?

cutaneous anaphylaxis occuring at the site of the scratch

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Immunotherapy

What can be used to treat an allergy patient

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What is produced in response to allergy shots

IgG blocking antibodies

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Type 2 hypersensitivity

antibodies directed against cell surface antigens

  • cytotoxic reactions body cells are destroyed during those reactions

  • few hours to take a reaction

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Examples of Type 2 Hypersensitivity Reactions

blood transfusion reactions, erythroblastosis fetalis

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Type III hypersensitivity reactions

immune complex reactions - such as those that occur in serum sickness and certain autoimmune diseases

  • involve IgG or IgM antibodies, complement and neutrophils

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Complications of untreated or inadequately treated strep throat and other streptococcus pyogenes infections

are the result of type III hypersensitivity reactions

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Delayed type hypersensitivity

  • type 4 hypersensitivity reactions

  • cell-mediated immune reactions and are part of cell mediate immunity

  • reactions are usually observed 24-48 hours or longer after exposure of contact

  • DTH

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DTH

prime mode of defense against intracellular bacteria and fungi

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What cell types is invovled in DTH

a variety, including macrophages, cytotoxic T cells, and NK cells - antibodies DO NOT play a major role

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Example of DTH

a positive TB skin test

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Autoimmune Diseases

result when a person’s immune system no longer recognizes certain body tissues as self and destroys those tissues as if they were “non-self” or foreign

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