Human Anatomy & Physiology – Modules 9-15 Overview

A comprehensive set of vocabulary flashcards covering key organs, hormones, anatomical structures, physiological processes, and pathological conditions from Modules 9-15.

Pituitary Gland

Master endocrine gland at the brain’s base that secretes multiple hormones regulating other endocrine organs.

Prolactin (PRL)

Pituitary hormone that stimulates milk production in mammary glands after childbirth.

Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH)

Pituitary gonadotropin that promotes gamete production in ovaries and testes.

Oxytocin

Posterior pituitary hormone that triggers uterine contractions and milk ejection.

Thyroid Gland

Butterfly-shaped gland in the neck producing metabolic hormones such as thyroxine.

Thyroxine (T4)

Thyroid hormone that elevates basal metabolic rate and supports growth and development.

Adrenal Glands

Paired glands atop the kidneys that secrete stress hormones from cortex and medulla.

Epinephrine

Adrenal medulla hormone (adrenaline) that increases heart rate, blood pressure, and glucose during stress.

Pancreas (endocrine)

Mixed gland whose islets secrete insulin and glucagon to regulate blood sugar.

Glucagon

Pancreatic alpha-cell hormone that raises blood glucose by stimulating glycogen breakdown.

Insulin

Pancreatic beta-cell hormone that lowers blood glucose by facilitating cellular uptake.

Pericardial Cavity

Fluid-filled space between visceral and parietal pericardium that reduces friction around the heart.

Epicardium

Outer serous layer of the heart wall; same as visceral pericardium.

Myocardium

Thick middle muscular layer of the heart responsible for contraction.

Endocardium

Inner endothelial lining of the heart chambers and valves.

Right Atrium

Heart chamber receiving deoxygenated blood from systemic veins.

Right Ventricle

Chamber pumping deoxygenated blood into the pulmonary artery.

Left Atrium

Heart chamber receiving oxygenated blood from pulmonary veins.

Left Ventricle

Chamber pumping oxygenated blood into the aorta for systemic circulation.

Tricuspid Valve

Right atrioventricular valve preventing backflow into the right atrium.

Mitral (Bicuspid) Valve

Left atrioventricular valve preventing backflow into the left atrium.

Pulmonary Semilunar Valve

Valve between right ventricle and pulmonary trunk.

Aortic Semilunar Valve

Valve between left ventricle and aorta.

Coronary Arteries

Vessels that supply oxygenated blood to the myocardium; blockage can cause myocardial infarction.

SA Node

Heart’s pacemaker; initiates electrical impulses causing atrial contraction.

AV Node

Electrical relay between atria and ventricles, introducing a brief delay before ventricular depolarization.

P Wave

ECG deflection representing atrial depolarization.

QRS Complex

ECG pattern indicating ventricular depolarization (and atrial repolarization).

T Wave

ECG deflection representing ventricular repolarization.

Artery

Blood vessel carrying blood away from the heart; thick elastic walls handle high pressure.

Vein

Vessel returning blood to the heart; contains valves and acts as blood reservoir.

Capillary

Microscopic vessel where exchange of gases, nutrients, and wastes occurs between blood and tissues.

Blood Pressure Gradient

Difference in pressure from arteries to veins that drives blood flow throughout the circulation.

Plasma

Liquid matrix of blood containing water, proteins, nutrients, hormones, and wastes.

Red Blood Cell (Erythrocyte)

Biconcave cell lacking nucleus; transports oxygen via hemoglobin.

Hemoglobin

Iron-containing protein in RBCs that binds and carries oxygen.

White Blood Cell (Leukocyte)

Immune cell defending the body against pathogens and debris.

Neutrophil

Most abundant WBC; phagocytizes bacteria and forms pus.

Lymphocyte

WBC subtype (B, T, NK cells) essential for adaptive immunity.

Monocyte

Large WBC that differentiates into macrophages for phagocytosis.

Eosinophil

Granulocyte combating parasites and moderating allergic responses.

Basophil

Rarest WBC; releases histamine promoting inflammation.

Platelet (Thrombocyte)

Cell fragment involved in blood clotting and vessel repair.

Hemostasis

Sequence of vascular spasm, platelet plug formation, and coagulation that stops bleeding.

Spleen

Lymphatic organ that filters blood, recycles RBCs, and houses immune cells.

Thymus

Gland where T lymphocytes mature; prominent in children.

Lymph Node

Bean-shaped structure that filters lymph and activates immune responses.

Lymph

Clear fluid derived from interstitial fluid that circulates through lymphatic vessels.

Kidneys

Retroperitoneal organs that filter blood, form urine, and regulate fluid-electrolyte balance.

Nephron

Functional unit of the kidney that filters blood, reabsorbs needed substances, and forms urine.

Glomerular Filtration

Process where 180 L of plasma filtrate enters nephrons daily, driven by pressure in glomeruli.

Tubular Reabsorption

Return of most filtrate (≈178 L) to blood, explaining why only ~2 L urine is excreted.

Ureter

Muscular tube conveying urine from kidney to urinary bladder.

Urinary Bladder

Expandable muscular sac for temporary urine storage in the pelvis.

Acid

Substance releasing H⁺ ions; pH < 7.

Base

Substance accepting H⁺ ions; pH > 7.

Acidosis

Condition where blood pH falls below 7.35.

Alkalosis

Condition where blood pH rises above 7.45.

Respiratory Acidosis

Acidic blood pH due to hypoventilation and CO₂ retention.

Respiratory Alkalosis

Alkaline blood pH from hyperventilation and CO₂ loss.

Metabolic Acidosis

Low blood pH from excess acid production or bicarbonate loss (e.g., diarrhea, ketoacidosis).

Metabolic Alkalosis

High blood pH from acid loss or bicarbonate gain (e.g., vomiting, antacid overuse).

Nasal Cavity

Airway chamber that warms, humidifies, and filters inhaled air; site of olfaction.

Pharynx

Muscular throat passageway for food and air; divided into naso-, oro-, and laryngopharynx.

Larynx

Voice box containing vocal cords and providing an open airway.

Trachea

Windpipe with C-shaped cartilage rings conducting air to bronchi.

Bronchial Tree

Branching system from primary bronchi to bronchioles directing air into alveoli.

Pleural Cavity

Thin fluid-filled space between parietal and visceral pleura reducing lung friction.

Inspiration

Active process where diaphragm and external intercostals contract, enlarging thoracic volume and drawing air in.

Expiration

Passive relaxation (or active during forceful breathing) expelling air from lungs.

Alveolar Gas Exchange

Diffusion of O₂ into blood and CO₂ into alveoli across respiratory membrane.

Oral Cavity

Mouth chamber initiating mechanical digestion and speech.

Tongue

Muscular organ aiding taste, chewing, and swallowing.

Palatine Tonsils

Lymphoid structures in oropharynx guarding against ingested pathogens.

Tooth Crown

Visible part of a tooth above the gum line, covered by enamel.

Dentin

Hard bony tissue forming bulk of a tooth beneath enamel.

Pulp Cavity

Central chamber of a tooth housing blood vessels and nerves.

Primary (Deciduous) Teeth

First set of 20 “baby” teeth that are shed in childhood.

Secondary (Permanent) Teeth

32 adult teeth that replace deciduous teeth.

Incisors

Chisel-shaped front teeth specialized for cutting food.

Cuspids (Canines)

Pointed teeth used for tearing food.

Premolars (Bicuspids)

Transitional teeth with two cusps for crushing and grinding.

Molars

Large multicusped teeth specialized for grinding food.

Salivary Glands

Exocrine glands secreting saliva to moisten food and begin starch digestion.

Peristalsis

Rhythmic contractions propelling food along the alimentary canal.

Stomach

Muscular sac performing mechanical digestion and initiating protein breakdown with acid and enzymes.

Small Intestine

Primary digestive and absorptive organ consisting of duodenum, jejunum, and ileum.

Duodenum

First 25 cm of small intestine where chyme mixes with bile and pancreatic juice.

Jejunum

Middle section of small intestine specialized for nutrient absorption.

Ileum

Terminal portion of small intestine that absorbs bile salts and vitamin B₁₂.

Liver

Large gland that produces bile, processes nutrients, detoxifies blood, and stores glycogen.

Gallbladder

Small sac under the liver that stores and concentrates bile.

Pancreas (digestive)

Accessory organ secreting digestive enzymes and bicarbonate into the duodenum.

Large Intestine

Organ absorbing water, forming feces, and housing gut microbiota.

Lymphatic System

Network that returns interstitial fluid to blood, absorbs dietary fats, and participates in immunity.