PHIL 2600 Dr. Petrik Ohio University Exam 2

Define the Problem of Evil

The charge that the terrible things that happen in the world make it irrational to believe that the universe was created by a being of infinite wisdom, power and love.

What are the two kinds of evil?

1. Moral evil: misfortunes that are deliberately brought about by free human action

2. Natural evil: misfortunes that happen as a result of natural forces

What are the 2 versions of the Problem of Evil

1. Logical Version: argue that the it is logically contradictory to believe in God's existence and the existence of any evil in the universe.

2. Evidential/Inductive Versions: maintain that the evil in the universe renders God's non-existence more probable than God's existence.

Who is best known for the logical version argument of the problem of evil?

J. L. Mackie

What is J. L. Mackies argument? (Including Dr. Petriks #4)

1. There exists an omni-natured creator of the universe.

2. There is evil in the universe.

3. A perfectly good being would prevent any evil it could prevent.

4. All evils are contingent. [added by proff]

Conclusion: The only plausible candidate for rejection is 1; therefore, God does not exist.

Who argued against Mackie's argument?

Plantinga

What was Plantinga's argument?

§ 3 should be replaced with 3'. [3' = 3 prime]

§ 3'. A perfectly good being would prevent any evils it could prevent provided it could do so without forfeiting some equal or greater good.

§ Moral evil is such an evil for an omnipotent being, for even God could prevent all moral evil only by eliminating human freedom.

§ A universe with free beings and moral evil may be better than a universe that lacked both free beings and moral evil.

After re-framing the logical version in terms of natural evil, how did Plantinga respond?

Demons

What is the main theistic strategy for explaining Moral Evil following the evidential/inductive version?

The free will defense.

[§ The Free Will Defense is used with the Logical Version AND the Evidential/Inductive Version of the problem of evil]

What are the 2 main Theistic strategies for Handling Natural Evil following the evidential/inductive version?

1. Redemptive Accounts

2. Soul-Making Accounts

Describe Redemptive Accounts

We are all fallen and alienated from a relationship with God, we therefore enjoy fame, wealth power and pleasure and this is why god allows natural evil

Describe Soul-Making Accounts

Natural evils happen to make us better people

Example of a soul-making account

Pinocchio

What is the greatest challenge that evil poses to theism?

The problem of gratuitous evil

Define Inscrutable Evil

Any evil which is such that human beings can identify no plausible justification God might have for allowing it.

Define Gratuitous Evil

Any unjustified evil; that is, an evil that God could have prevented without allowing some equal or greater evil or forfeiting some equal or greater good.

How does inscrutable evil differ from gratuitous evil?

Inscrutable says we can't see a justification whereas gratuitous says there is no justification period

Define Justified Evil

Any evil that God could not have prevented without allowing some equal or greater evil or forfeiting some equal or greater good.

Define Good Inductive Evidence

Evidence that renders a conclusion more likely to be true than false.

§ Raising the probability of a conclusion above 0.5

Describe the argument of The Problem of Gratuitous Evil

1. If God existed, then there would not be any cases of gratuitous evil

2. We have good inductive evidence for believing that there are cases of gratuitous evil

Therefore:

3. We have good inductive evidence for believing God does not exist

How do Atheists justify premise 2 of the Problem of Gratuitous Evil argument?

a) There are cases of inscrutable evil.

b) Our inability to think of reasons that would justify God in allowing such evils is good inductive evidence for concluding that there are no reasons that would justify God in allowing such evils.

Therefore,

c) We have good inductive evidence to conclude that there are cases of gratuitous evil.

According to J.L. Mackie, the following four claims constitute an inconsistent set. Which of the four is, according to J.L. Mackie, the only plausible candidate for rejection?

There exists an omni-natured creator of the universe.

An inductive/evidential version of the problem of evil attempts to show that

the evil in the universe renders God's non-existence more likely than God's existence.

An inscrutable evil is

an evil which is such that human beings can identify no plausible justification God might have for allowing it.

If J.L. Mackie were to reformulate his logical version of the problem of evil in terms of natural evil, Alvin Plantinga would respond by appealing to the logical possibility of

demons.

Which of the following is an example of a moral evil?

Knowingly slandering a business competitor in order to increase one's profit.

What is the inference used to support premise 2. 'We have good inductive evidence for believing that there are cases of gratuitous evil.'

an inductive inference to a negative existential conclusion

What is a negative existential conclusion

A conclusion/claim that something doesn't exist

Who argues the inductive inference to a negative existential conclusion about gratuitous evil?

William Alston

How does Alston believe a Inductive Inferences to Negative Existential Conclusions can be justified?

The Moderately Thorough Search Condition

Why does Alston believe the Inference from Inscrutable Evil to Gratuitous Evil is NOT Justified?

Moral Modesty: We cannot conduct a moderately thorough search as an omnipotent being could, there is too much of values/morals/right vs wrong that is beyond our ken

An Argument for the Existence of Values Beyond Our Ken

Human beings are able to advance in moral wisdom throughout their lives.

All human beings have their growth in moral wisdom terminated by infirmity or death.

That it is only infirmity or death that halts human progress in moral wisdom gives us good reason to believe that there are values unknown to human beings. (Specifically, we have reason to believe that there are values that a human being would come to recognize were her or his moral development not cut short by infirmity or death.)

Michael Tooley's Challenge to Moral Modesty

Human beings have not built upon the accumulated wisdom of previous generations in such a way that the progress of moral theory has modeled that of scientific theory.

The best explanation for this lack of progress in ethics over the past two thousand years is that human beings already know all the fundamental values there are to know.

An Alternative Explanation for the Lack of Progress in Our Knowledge of Values

Moral knowledge is not the same kind of thing as scientific knowledge

To understand that something is of value is not merely a cognitive exercise of grasping evidentiary and logical relations among a body of propositions, some of which report descriptive facts.

In addition to applying one's cognitive faculties to the subject of values, growth in moral wisdom involves the cultivation of a certain character, a character that puts one in position to appreciate and hence recognize the value in question.

The cultivation of moral character depends on a long and difficult process of committing oneself to certain courses of action over a long term. (It cannot be acquired merely through a process of learning a body of information.)

The role of the development of moral character in the acquisition of moral wisdom makes it far more difficult to transmit moral knowledge from one generation to the next than it is to transmit scientific knowledge from one generation to the next.

An Argument to Show that Moral Modesty Entails Moral Skepticism

1) If moral modesty is true, then any atrocity might be such that it is justified for reasons beyond our ken.

2) If any atrocity might be justified by reasons beyond our ken, then we have no more reason to prevent any atrocity than we do to allow it.

3) If we are not rationally justified in preventing any atrocity, then we have no moral knowledge.

Therefore,

4) If moral modesty is true, then we have no moral knowledge.

A Modest Response to the argument against moral modesty

A. God likely has reasons for allowing evils where these reasons are beyond our ability to know. (Moral Modesty)

B. The most effective way for human beings to contribute to God's overall plan for the universe is to follow the moral code that God has written into their intellects.

Since one of the moral rules that we find in our intellects is that we should prevent any atrocity we can, premise 2) of the argument for moral skepticism is unfounded.

According to William Alston, an inductive inference to a negative existential conclusion

is only justified if it is based on at least a moderately thorough search.

An inductive/evidential version of the problem of evil attempts to show that

??

An inscrutable evil is

an evil which is such that human beings can identify no plausible justification God might have for allowing it.

Which of the following, according to Michael Tooley, is the best explanation for the fact that human beings have not built upon the accumulated wisdom of previous generations in such a way that the progress of moral theory has modeled that of scientific theory.

Human beings already know all the fundamental values there are to know.

The Dependency Thesis

Morality depends on God

What are 3 ways to interpret the Dependency Thesis?

1. Motivational Dependence: Belief God is necessary for motivation to act morally

2. Practical Irrationality Interpretation: Atheists who do what is morally right are guilty of practical irrationality

3. Metaphysical Interpretation: "moral facts do not exist unless God also exists." (Jordan, p. 268)

How does Jordan critique the Motivational Dependence interpretation?

1. Many atheists are morally splendid individuals.

2. Some largely secular nations (Sweden) have lower rates of violent crime than some largely religious ones (USA).

How does Jordan critique the Practical Irrationality interpretation?

1. This misconstrues the nature of morality. Morality requires that we do what is morally right because it is right and not out of self-interest.

2. There is nothing inherently irrational about valuing things other than one's own welfare more than one's own welfare.

How does Jordan defend the Metaphysical Interpretation?

Specify the nature of morality and then show that God's commands do a very good job of explaining the key characteristics of morality.

Morality:

"the branch of practical rationality that deals with weighty, objectively valid reasons for acting which are logically independent of an agent's self-interest and which are such that failure to conform to them merits remorse." (Jordan, p. 271).

Define DCT (Divine command theory)

"an action is morally wrong if it is forbidden by God, morally obligatory if it is required by God, and morally optional if it is neither forbidden nor required by God." (Jordan, p. 271)

What are 3 reasons atheists use to explain where morality comes from if not from God?

1. General moral principles are basic/necessary truths, they have no need outside themselves

2. Product of human social evolution, cooperations leads to higher success

3. Moral principles are human inventions

Describe Ethical Subjectivism

Ethical values and principles are merely the product of such human subjective states as beliefs, choices, emotions and desires.

o There are no moral facts.

o Moral Values are invented, not discovered.

§ No right or wrong, just whatever you believe

§ Morality is an illusion

Describe Ethical Objectivism

Ethical values and principles are not merely the product of such human subjective states as beliefs, choices, emotions and desires.

o There are moral facts.

o Moral values are discovered, not invented.

*Which of the following is not one of the examples Jordan gives of a possible conflict between self-interest and moral obligation? = a person who can get away with cheating on a final exam in a class needed for their college degree, and the degree is necessary for them to start a lucrative job

a person who can get away with cheating on a final exam in a class needed for their college degree, and the degree is necessary for them to start a lucrative job

What are 3 examples Jordan gives as possible conflicts between self-interest and moral obligation?

a. a person who may join a powerful secret society that will help advance their career; however, a condition of admission is that the person cause someone to fall in love with them and then break their heart.

b. a person who promises to return a textbook to the bookstore but later considers selling it when the employee who loaned it to her leaves the bookstore.

c. a salesperson who made a very foolish and costly mistake; however, a co-worker is mistakenly blamed for the mistake and will be fired unless the salesperson speaks up.

Cerro Torre is

a mountain in Patagonia.

The branch of ethics that studies the foundations of moral reasoning is known as

metaethics

Which of the following interpretations of the dependency thesis--that morality depends on God--does Matthew Jordan accept?

Moral facts do not exist unless God also exists.

Which of the following is not one of the characteristics of a moral reason according to Matthew Jordan?

being the product of mere human conventions.

According to Jordan moral reasoning needs to be:

logically independent of self-interest, objectively valid and weighty

Characteristics of Religious Extremism

o 1) It advocates the use of coercive measures (either through legislation, violence, or the threat of violence) to induce others to accept the religion's distinctive beliefs and practices;

o 2) It advocates the use of coercive measures to silence criticism of or rational inquiry into the religion's distinctive beliefs and practices

o 3) It discourages the use of reason as an avenue for achieving knowledge or guiding conduct and substitutes in reason's place a reliance upon revelation for the acquisition of belief.

In simple terms: § What 1 - 3 have in common is that they attempt to diminish significantly the role of reason and free choice in human life, with particular emphasis on diminishing their role in the acquisition of beliefs.

Complicating factors for characteristics of religious extremism

· 1): "others" refers to those outside of the religion in question. It is legitimate for religions to use "coercive" measures with respect to its membership.

· 2): none.

· 3): Perhaps, when reason and revelation a) reach obviously conflicting conclusions and b) the rational support is unambiguous, the belief established through revelation should be modified and/or rejected.

Malala Yousafzai

Opposed the religious extremism of the Taliban by blogging in favor of the right of girls to be educated.

A Religious Critique of Religious Extremism

Freedom and reason are significant gifts of the creator.

These gifts give human beings a special place in the created order.

It is irreligious to denigrate these gifts.

Franz Jägerstätter (1907-1943)

· Why "did God endow all men with reason and free will if, despite this, we have to render blind obedience; or if, as so many also say, the individual is not qualified to judge whether this war started by Germany is just or unjust? What purpose is served by the ability to distinguish between good and evil?"

Proto

first, early, original, primitive, anticipatory

§ Al-Kindī's Critique of Extremist Religious Leaders

§ In his work, On First Philosophy, al-Kindī encourages the reader to use reason to search for the truth, with indifference to its source:

§ "Even if it should emanate from races distant from us and nations different from us. For nothing is more fulfilling for the seeker of truth than [the pursuit] of truth itself."

§ Al-Kindī there also offers a harsh assessment of religious leaders who would restrict reason's pursuit of truth in the name of religion.

§ He claims that the real goal of such leaders is "to safeguard their false positions which they have earned without merit, simply for the sake of high office and trafficking with religion."

Al˗Fārābī's Account of Enlightened Religious Leadership

§ The virtuous religious leader strives to bring his subjects to true happiness.

§ Happiness is to be understood in terms of the Aristotelian notion of eudaemonia that gives priority to the development of a human being's rational nature.

§ But a religious leader who is vicious, by contrast, has the primary aim of securing only for himself "ignorant goods" such as pleasure, honor, glory, or conquest, and thus makes "those under his rulership tools he uses to arrive at his purpose and to retain in his possession" [1, p. 93].

§ One noteworthy feature of Al˗Fārābī's account is his contention that the vicious leader reduces his subjects to "tools" and "possessions".

· The Commodification of Religion

o By "trafficking in religion" extremist religious leaders are turning what should be a sacred relationship into a mere commodity, a tool that is used to advance their private ends of power, fame and wealth.

o The charge of commodification put forth by Al-Kindī and Al˗Fārābī anticipates the centerpiece of Immanuel Kant's ethics.

· The Categorical Imperative

o The Formula of Humanity by Kant

The Formula of Humanity by Kant

o "Act in such a way that you treat humanity, whether in your own person or in the person of any other, never merely as a means to an end, but always at the same time as an end" [3, p. 30].

§ A person ought to be respected as having intrinsic worth and not mere market value.

§ A person should not be used as a mere tool for achieving one's ends.

§ The ground of the intrinsic worth of persons and what is deserving of respect is that they are rational and autonomous.

· Commodifying a Love Relationship and the Formula of Humanity

o Commodifying a Love Relationship à Using another's love relationship as a mere tool to advance one's own ends. à Violation of the Formula of Humanity: respecting others as free and rational beings includes respecting the most significant of the relationships they enter into as free and rational beings; namely, love relationships.

§ Respect here is not "appraisal" respect.

o A less obvious (but no less heinous) way one can fail to respect another as a free and rational being is to treat another's love relationships as mere means to one's own ends.

· Extremist Religious Leaders Violate True Religion in Two Ways = Irreligion of Religious Extremism:

o They fail to respect the reason of their subjects and thus fail to honor what is a singularly precious gift that the Creator has bestowed upon human beings

o When they use the religious faith of their subjects to advance their own private ambitions, they are degrading what they should regard as the highest expression of human freedom and reason—a love relationship with the creator—by treating it as a mere instrument to their own private ends

The Belmont Report

specified guidelines for the ethical treatment of human subjects in research.

Aristotle's notion of eudaemonia is typically translated as

happiness or fulfillment.

Kant's categorical imperative requires

that any being with reason and will must be treated as an end and never merely as a means.

Which of the following is not one of the characteristics of religious extremism identified in the PowerPoint lecture?

It promotes works of charity.

Which of the following are some of the characteristics of religious extremism identified in the PowerPoint lecture?

It advocates the use of coercive measures to silence criticism of or rational inquiry into the religion's distinctive beliefs and practices

It advocates the use of coercive measures (either through legislation, violence, or the threat of violence) to induce others to accept the religion's distinctive beliefs and practices

It discourages the use of reason as an avenue for achieving knowledge or guiding conduct and substitutes in reason's place a reliance upon revelation for the acquisition of belief.

Who wrote that the real goal of extremist religious leaders was "to safeguard their false positions which they have earned without merit, simply for the sake of high office and trafficking with religion"?

Al-Kindi