Bio446L exam 1 (copy)

What is the foundation to deeper structures

surface anatomy

What is anatomic variation

no two people are the same

What are the smallest structure that form the most vital functions of life

cells

Where do cells come from

all cells come by dividing from preexisting cells

TEM VS SEM

SEM creates an image by detecting reflected or knocked-off electrons, while TEM uses transmitted electrons (electrons that are passing through the sample) to create an image.

What two major compartments are cells divided by

cytoplasm and nucleus

What creates shape of cell

cytoplasmic skeleton

What is the main function of the plasma membrane

separates cytoplasm of cell from extracellular world and allows it to interact with outside world (is a dynamic structure)

What is achondroplasia

dwarfism that affects bone growth wherein cartilage doesn’t convert into a bone

What is the plasma membrane composed of

bilayer of lipids with hydrophobic inner layer and two types of proteins. integral/transmembrane proteins- proteins embedded or passing through plasma membrane and peripheral membrane proteins- associated with membrane but not embedded

What attaches to the outside of cell membrane

carbohydrates, proteins (glycoproteins) or lipids (glycolipids)

What is the glycocalyx

the outer covering of plasma membrane made from arbohydrates, proteins (glycoproteins) or lipids (glycolipids)

What is the lipid raft

cholesterol molecules that have clusters in the membrane, which helps plasma membrane operate

What is the phospholipid made of

polar head group (hydrophilic) and nonpolar fatty acid chain (hydrophobic)

How can things leave or enter the cell

through channels of proteins (vesicular transport) and by diffusion

What is endocytosis

vesicular transport where substances enters a cell

what is exocytosis

vesicular transport where substance leaves a cell

\

What is another name for endocytosis

phagocytosis

What is phagocytosis

when the plasma membrane engulfs a large particle

What is pinocytosis

 known as fluid endocytosis and bulk-phase pinocytosis, is a mode of endocytosis in which small molecules dissolved in extracellular fluid are brought into cell

what is receptor-mediated endocytosis

has receptors on the surface, which tell the cell to bring something inside

What is an example of receptor-mediated endocytosis

Is low density lipid receptors looking for low density lipids. When many low density lipids interact with receptors it triggers things to happen in the cell. They then phagocytose in cell.

Does the body, cells and tissue constantly do to not waste material

recycle

How does the cell wall move

it is dynamic organelle

Why do cells communicate

to coordinate their function

What is synaptic signaling?

(longer route) cells (neurons) send signals down the nerves to tell muscles and other things to do stuff (involves neurotransmitters)

What is endocrine signaling

(longer route) tells cells what to do by sending hormones

what is paracrine signaling

sends signals to cells close

What is the engine of the cell

the mitochondria because it produces energy

What cells do not have mitochondria? Why?

red blood cells. They do not use energy because they transport oxygen or carbon dioxide. Also, terminal keratinocytes because they are dead

When are more mitochondria produced

cells that use larger amounts of energy

What has a similar look as the plasma membrane

the mitochondria because it has two membranes because they have different functions

What are the folds of the inner membrane of the mitochondria called and their purpose

cristae and it increases surface area because they want more surface area for generating energy

How does the mitochondria create energy

aerobic respiration and generates ATP

If a person has a mitochondrial deficiency diseases what will they have issues with

having energy

What organelles are involved in protein synthesis

RER and ribosomes

What is the function of ribosomes

to assemble polypeptides

What is the endoplasmic recticum

a set of interconnected channels that run through the cytoplasm

What does RER and SER synethsize

rer- proteins and ser-lipids and carb metabolism

Where are proteins from the RER sent

golgi apparatus

What are free ribosomes

are not attached to anything and interact with mRNA to assemble proteins

What are en-bound ribsomes

ribosomes attached to the er, then the proteins are collected in the cisterna and that protein will be sent to golgi apparatus

What is a process by en-bound ribosomes

sweating

What is the difference between free and ER-Bound polyribosomes?

look at pic

What do bad proteins cause

illnesses and disorders

what is Endoplasmic-reticulum-associated protein degradation (ERAD)

targets a bad/poorly folded protein and sends it out into cytoplasm where ubiquitin attaches to it. Proteasomes then degrade it.  Degraded protein results in free amino acids to be reused.



MA: Parkinson’s, CF, HIV

What detoxifies drugs and alcohol

ser

What are transport vesicles

molecules that move proteins

What does golgi appartus do

modifies and takes the wrong product and refines it and completes it. Then put in shipping vacuoles (also know as secretory granules) to move in cell or be secreted by plasma membrane. if stay inside of plasma membrane it will give rise to lysosomes

What are lysosomes examples

through endocytosis the kidney tubule brings in materials in the lumen and the cell uses lysosomes to break it up to use or execute

What happens when you have too much hydroperoxide

Peroxisomes take it out

function of cytoplasm

•Determine shape of cells, Movement of organelles, and Movement of the cell

what are microtubles and functions

small hollow tubes that form near the nucleus and grow towards cell. They provide a pathway/connections for things to follow by creating a system of connections/guides vesicles in movement within cell

What structure is responsible for final creation of two daughter cells

microtubules

Why is actin filamnet the most important Microfilaments

it is in all cell types and

•provide anchorage and movement of membrane proteins

•Form structural core of microvilli

•Extension of cell processes

•Movement of cell

What is keratin

are important in epithelial cells because they help hold epithelial cells into a single sheet and to the underlying connective tissue

What is Vimentin

are mesoderm-derived cells that give rise to other tissues like muscle, glial

What are the two important

Intermediate Filaments

keratin and Vimentin

what is the cell nucleus

\

•Membrane-limited compartment containing genes

what does the cell nucleus contain

\
•Nuclear envelope:

\
•Chromatin:

\
•Nucleolus:

\
•Nucleoplasm:

•Nuclear envelope: bilayer with perinuclear space between them and __nuclear pores__ which regulate transport between nucleus and cytoplasm

•Chromatin: chromosomal material

•Nucleolus: site of active rRNA synthesis which then leads to protein synthesis- when the chromatin is active- communicates to rest of the cell

•Nucleoplasm: material within nucleus that is not chromatin or  nucleolus

What proccess do stem cells give rise to new cells

when a stem cell divides one will stay behind to stay was a stem cell while the other one becomes a progenitor cell

What is apoptosis

the death of cells which occurs as a normal and controlled part of an organism's growth or development.

Why do we tan

to protect the stem cells of our skin

What are general characteristics of the Epithelium

\-anything that leaves or enters the body must pass through an epithelium'

\-largely packed cells with extracellular material between cells

\-Arranged in continuous sheets of either single \n (simple) or multiple (stratified) cells in thickness

\-have free surface which mean it is exposed to areas that is not part of the body is connected to connective tissue called basal lamina (basement membrane)

\-all are avascular (does not contain blood vessel because it would bleed)

\-have nerve supply

\-high capacity for renewal (come from stem cells)

how does Epithelium get nourishment

through the underlying tissue ex the basal lamaina

What are the two types of epithelia

\-covering

\-glandular comes from glands of the body

What do epithelial cells rest on

connective tissue

lamina propria; dermis

the connective tissue of the epithelia lining the cavity of internal organs called and what is it called in the case of the skin

What do evaginations in connective tissue form and why does it do this

it forms papillae to anchor the connective tissue and epithelium together

What is the basement membrane

\
Visible with light microscope using a specific stain. Usually formed by two laminae, basal and reticular

what is the basal lamina

• Binds epithelium to underlying connective tissue \n • Composed of type IV collagen, glycoproteins (laminin and entactin), and proteoglycans \n • Only seen with an electron microscope

Why is the basal lamina type IV collagen unique

because it is secreted by epithelial cells, which is unique because all collagen comes from connective tissue cell. the collagen helps hold everything together

What is tight junction and another name for it

\-Zonulae occludens

\-Closes off intercellular space (fusion sites)

-Prevents diffusion between cells

\-prevents disease

How are tight junctions fussed

by proteins occludin and claudin

What is zonula adherens (junctions)

•Anchors cells together

•Connects cytoskeleton (actin filaments) of one cell to another

What is Desmosome (macula adherens) (junction)

strong spot links between cells (only in certain spots)

What is Hemidesmosomes (junction)

•Join epithelial cells to basal lamina

•Involve integrins (transmembrane protein)

Cell adhesion molecules (CAM)

•Cadherins

\-•Anchors actin cells in one cell to another

\-•Role in suppressing epithelial tumor cells

•Integrins

\-•Interact with basal lamina (laminin and Type IV collagen) and  extracellular matrix of connective tissue, affect cell movement and shape (transmembrane proteins attach epithelial cell to a structure in connective tissue

How do things get into the epithelial

go through the cell

Gap junctions

•Forms small diffusion channel (connexon) between adjacent cells (important for nerve or cardiac cells)

•Allow signaling molecules to pass through from one cell to the next

Specializations of Free Surface Cilia:

•Cilia:   Move mucus & other substances

\-•Primarily found in trachea, bronchi, oviduct (contribute a lot to the respiratory system) (if the mucous is not removed then it can cause issues and blockage)

•Microvilli:   Increase surface area (looks like a brush) (absorption)

\-•Brush border of kidney tubule cell

\-•Striated border of intestinal absorptive cell

•Stereocilia (long microvilli)

\-•Only in epididymis (male reproductive system) and sensory (hair) cells of inner ear

what does Microvilli have in it

Microvilli is a piece of tissue that flops down and has a skeletal component, which is actin filaments, which are anchored down by tied to the cytoskeleton

what is the terminal web

The group of actin filaments that runs underneath the surface of an epithelial cell where the microvilli is

A glands is a _____ and if it is a __ __it will have the same__ *_____*

epithelia and characteristics

What are the two types of epithelia

covering and glandular

Simple Squamous Epithelium characteristics

•Single layer

•Flat shape

•Allow active and passive movement of substances (gases, fluids, etc.) through tissue

\-happens in areas like lungs where alveoli exchange air with blood vessels

Simple Squamous Epithelium special names

•Endothelium (internal lining of heart and blood vessels)

•Mesothelium (internal lining of ventral body cavities)- heart or lung or reproductive cavity

What is Simple Cuboidal Epithelium characteristics

•Single layer

•Cube or hexagonal shape

•Secretions (e.g. tears), absorption (water)

-seen in the eye, kidney or gut

Simple Columnar Epithelium characteristics

•Single layer

•Tall and cylindrical shape

- Protective, secretion and absorption

Stratified Squamous Epithelium characteristics

•Multiple layers

•superficial layers flat

•deeper layers more cuboidal, deepest have continuous cell division

\-top layer is flat but is more cuboidal the deeper you go

\-the deeper cells are cuboidal cells are the progenitor cells (they divide and one moves up to the surface and becomes flat)

Types of Stratified Squamous Epithelium

•Keratinized, cornified, dry  (tough, water-resistant)- (outer layer of skin)

\-Non-keratinized, non-cornified, wet- (protection and make a barrier) (seen in mouth)

Simple Columnar Epithelium types

•Ciliated:   Moves mucous and other substances (find mostly in airways)

•Non-ciliated

•Goblet cells (secrete mucus) (gland)

-Absorptive cells (have microvilli

Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium characteristics

•Columnar 

•Appears to be multiple layers but is not

•All cells attached to basement membrane

•Some cells do not reach free surface

•Secrete or may be ciliated

•Seen mostly in upper respiratory system

(it is fake because all the layers are attached to the basement membrane and do not make it to the surface)

Transitional Epithelium characteristics

•Special stratified epithelium that lines pelvis of kidney, ureters, urinary bladder and part of urethra

•Cells change shape according to the degree of distension of the organ.

Exocrine gland characteristics

•Secrete into ducts (open into an epithelium)

•Usually are divided into lobes and lobules

endocrine gland characteristics

•Ductless

•Secrete into extracellular fluids, diffuse into blood

-secrete typically hormones and secrete fluids into the bloodstream

exocrine glands

When an epithelium gland grows down and protrudes deeper in the connective tissue and hollows out and creates a duct then creates a secretory portion EX: sweat gland

endocrine gland

When an epithelium gland grows down and protrudes deeper in the connective tissue and the connecting tissue dies and the epithelial cells are deeper into the connective tissue and become invaded by blood vessels

What important action does the pancreas do

exocirne- the epithelial cells form acini that secrete digestive enzymes into the pancreatic duct

endocrine- the epithelial cell form a second type of gland that secretes into the blood called pancreatic islets

When you have an endocrine gland what are you more likely to have

blood vessels